Apparatus and method for providing neuromotor feedback to operator of video gaming implement

ABSTRACT

Neuromotor feedback is provided to a person grasping an automated reality implement that is part of an automated reality system or grasping a video game implement that is part of a video game system. A feedback apparatus attaches to the implement such that the weight a the feedback apparatus is supported entirely by the implement. The feedback apparatus senses positions of the implement, receives one or more signaling inputs provided by the person or by the automated reality system or video game system, and applies one or more external forces to the implement.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority as a divisional of co-pending U.S.patent application Ser. No.14/841,740 filed Sep. 1, 2015, titled“Multi-rotor Apparatus and Method for Motion Sculpting” which is adivisional of U.S. patent applicatim Ser. No. 13/602,842 filed Sep. 4,2012, titled “Multi-rotor Apparatus, and Method for Motion Sctilpting,”which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,149, 70 and which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/237,502filed Sep. 25, 2008, titled “Muscle Training Apparatus and Method,”which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,398,501 and which is acontinuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/857,049filed Sep. 18, 2007, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,766,760 and whichis a continuation-in-part of US. patent application Ser. No. 10/681,971filed Oct. 9, 2003, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,351,157. The entirecontents of these prior applications are incorporated herein byreference.

FIELD

This invention relates to a muscle trainer and to methods of exercisinga muscle. This invention particularly relates to a muscle trainer foruse by an individual when exercising one or more muscles used to move animplement and to methods of exercising such muscles.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Many types of activities require an individual to move an implement inan attempt to successfidly accomplish the end goal of participation insuch activity. For example, when participating in any of severalsporting games, an individual may be required to move any of severaldifferent implements, each of which is unique to a particular one of thegames. Examples of such implements include a bat in the games ofbaseball and softball, a racket used in the games of tennis and racketball, a club used in the game of golf, a weapon used in hunting orwarfare, and a handheld video gaming or automated reality implement. Themovement of an implement is also, required in certain non-sports or workenvironments such as, for example, the swinging of a maul, a hammer oran axe.

In any of the above-rioted activities, an efficient and desired endresult may be achieved from the movement of the implement when theimplement is moved in an ideal path. The ideal path will vary depending,on the individual's height, build and flexibility. When an individualmoves the implement in that individual's ideal path, various, musclegroups must function together in a precise way. The need for muscularprecision is particularly apparent in the game of golf, where theimplement is a golf club and the individual is a golfer. If theindividual is aligned properly and is swinging the implement at theproper speed along the ideal path, the end result will also be ideal.

In the game of golf, the golf club includes a metal ornon-metal-composite Shaft having a club head attached to one end of theshaft and a gripping material, referred to as “the grip,” attached tothe other end of the shaft. Another component of the game of golf is agolf ball. The general object of the game is for the golfer, by use ofthe club, to cause the ball to be moved typically from an earthen mound,referred to as “the tee,” toward and into a small container, referred toas “the cup”, which is located in a carpet of short grass, referred toas “the green,” typically several hundred yards from the tee.

The golfer causes the ball to he moved generally by (1) grasping thegrip of the club with both hands, (2) “addressing” the ball with theclub head which includes aligning “a sweet spot” of a front, orhall-impact, face of the club head with the ball, (3) raising the club,desirably through the, ideal path, in a motion referred to as “thebackswing,” (4) locating the shaft of the club, upon completion of thebackswing, in a transitional position behind the head of the golfer, (5)swinging the club forward from the transitional position, desirablyreturning through the ideal path, in a momentum-gathering motionreferred to as “the downswing” and, desirably, (6) directing the sweetspot of the front face of the club head into impact-engagemem with theball to drive the ball along a desired trajectory and direction, leadingto eventual placement of the ball in the cup.

The combined motions of the backswing and the downswing are referred toas “a stroke.” Typically. several strokes by the golfer are required toadvance the ball along a path, commonly referred to as “the fairway,”between the tee and the green, and to its ultimate destination in thecup.

When the golfer addresses the ball with the ball-impacting front face ofthe club head (hereinafter referred to, as the club face), the sweetspot of the einb thee is adjacent and aligned with the ball as notedabove. As the golfer begins the backswing, the club head is movedthrough an are away from the ball, but desirably maintains an initialarcing alignment between the club face and the ball. At some pointduring the initial segment of the backswing, there isanatomical/mechanical necessity for some degree of rotation of the clubshaft such that the club face loses its arcing alignment with the ball.As the golfer swings the club through the downswing of the stroke, thegolfer must effectively rotate the club in the reverse direction,preferably just before impact with the ball, to return the club face toarcing alignment with the ball.

Desirably, following movement of the club through the full stroke, thegolfer should have returned the club thee through the ideal path to theaddressed position with the momentum necessary to effectively strike andcarry the ball in a desired trajectory and direction.

While it is a practical impossibility to accomplish a “perfect” golfswing each and every time a golfer swings the club to impact the ball,several professional golfers seem to accomplish a near “perfect” swingon a reasonably consistent basis. In attempts to bring some semblance ofa near “perfect” swing to at least non-professional golfers, techniqueshave been developed to train the swinging muscles of a golfer with agoal of developing muscle memory to provide a more consistent andefficient golf swing. Even so, there remains a need for a device andmethods that will better enable the golfer, or any one moving animplement, to move the club or, other implement along an ideal path.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The above and other needs are met by a muscle trainer, and methods whichcontemplate that when an individual moves an implement along a path, afirst muscle or set of muscles exerts a puffing force on the movingimplement in a first direction generally laterally of the ideal path. Atthe same time, a second muscle or set of muscles exerts a pulling forceon the moving implement in a second direction generally laterally of theideal path and generally in a direction that is opposite to the firstdirection. If the first and second muscles or sets of muscles are ofequal strength, the opposing pulling forces exerted upon the implementtend to maintain the implement in an ideal path to achieve the ideal endresult in an efficient and desirable manner.

As used hereinafter, the word “muscle” can mean a single muscle, a setof muscles, or both.

When moving the implement, if the first muscle is stronger than thesecond muscle, the first muscle will dominate the weaker second muscleto the extent that the implement is pulled laterally away from the idealpath in the first direction, whereby the individual is not moving theimplement in the most efficient manner to accomplish the task at hand.This undesirable dominant muscle condition and its attendantdisadvantages are particularly apparent in sporting games such as, forexample, the game of golf, where the implement is a golf club and theindividual is a golfer,

One of the primary goals in golf involves achieving an ideal plane ofthe swing of the golf club. The ideal backswing plane has been describedas being like a sheet of glass resting on the golfer's shoulders andextending to the golf ball. Producing the ideal downswing plane requiresthat the sheet of glass is shifted to a flatter angle and is skewed fora more inside to outside club shaft path. To achieve these ideal planes,the path that the club shaft must follow during the swing must be anideal one. However, the ideal club shaft path does not typicallycoincide with a true plane like a sheet of glass. The non-planar natureof the ideal club shaft path is more apparent in the backswing, in whichthe ideal club shaft path has been described as having a significantupward curvature.

In an attempt to marry these conflicting visual images of curves andplanes, the term “club shaft plane” will hereinafter be used inpreference to the terms club shaft path and swing plane. As mentionedabove, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, for a human beingto swing a golf club through a complete stroke while keeping the clubshaft in one club shaft plane which is a true plane. Hence, it iscorrect to state that the path in which the club shaft travels is nottypically a true plane. In fact, there are an infinite number ofsingular positions of the club shaft along the golf club's path oftravel throughout the entire swing. At each of these positions, there isa singular club shaft plane that rests in the spatial field representingthe direction of travel of fhe club shaft for that position only, inother words, at each position of the club in a swing, there is a singleplane that coincides with the club shaft's instantaneous directionvector. For simplicity, the composite of these infinite number ofsingular club shaft planes is referred to herein as the club shaftplane. It may also be referred to as the composite club shaft'plane. Foreach golfer, there are ideal club shaft planes for the backswing,downswing, and follow-through that may vary slightly depending on thetype of shot being played. These ideal club shaft planes will bedifferent for each golfer depending on the golfer's height, build, andflexibility.

To best visualize the club shaft plane, observation of the golfer'sswing should take place from a position looking down the target line onthe takeaway side of the golfer's swing. From this perspective, a commonerror is for the golfer to allow the club shaft to deviate behind or infront of their ideal club shaft plane. To achieve the result of keepingthe club shaft within the ideal club shaft plane, a group of opposing,muscles in the golfefs torso, shoulders, arms, and hands must functionin a proper manner. This muscle group is referred to as the “club shaftplane opposing muscle group.” The two sets of opposing muscles withinthe club shaft plane opposing muscle group are the “behind-the-planemuscles” and the “front-of-the-plane muscles.” One could consider thesetwo sets of opposing muscles as being in a tug-of-war pulling againsteach other to determine the actual club shaft plane. Ideally then, thesetwo sets of muscles should be of appropriate strength, such that neitherset dominates the other set, and the shaft of the club is maintainedwithin, and is not moved laterally from, the ideal club shaft plane.

To better represent the movement of the entire golf club in space, theposition of the club face will hereinafter be referred to as the clubthee plane. Regardless of the loft of the club face, the club face planerepresents the position of the club face as if the club face had zerodegrees of loft. Unlike the club shaft plane that typically has somedegree of curvature, the club face plane is a true plane since it is anextension of the zero degree club face. The concepts of the club faceplane and the club shaft plane help one to visualize the relationshipbetween the movement of the club face and the club shaft during the golfswing. An approximation of the proper relationship between these, twoplanes is described in a “two-plane-merger” golf swing theory.

The tug-of-war between the behind-the-plane muscles and thefront-of-the-plane muscles is accompanied by the anatomical/mechanicalneed for rotation of the shaft and club face plane during the swing.Two-plane-merger can be explained by the following discussion of swingpositions.

At the address, or six o'clock, position, the club face plane is ideallya vertical plane which is essentially perpendicular to the club shaftplane. In a face-to-face perspective while observing the swing of aright handed golfer, the club face plane is rotated in acounter-clockwise direction about the axis of the club shaft to achievea mechanically efficient movement in which the club face plane “slices”through the air in an aertxlynamic fashion. Somewhere between the eighto'clock and ten o'clock backswing positions, the club face plane hasbeen rotated approximately ninety degrees in a counter-clockwisedirection so that the club face plane “merges” and is substantially“co-planar” with the club shaft plane. This approximate ninety degreerotation creates what is referred to as the “merged position.” At thebackswing completion position and during the downswing, the club faceplane remains approximately merged with the club shaft plane until justbefore impact when the club face plane is rotated ninety degrees in aclockwise direction to achieve a “square” impact position which isperpendicular to the club shaft plane. The relationship of the clubface, plane and the club shaft plane during the follow-through is amirror image of the relationship of the two planes during the backswingwith an approximate remerger of the two planes occurring somewherebetween the four o'clock and two o'clock follow-through positions.

It follows that the two-plane-merger zone of the golf swing exists abovethe substantially horizontal line connecting the nine o'clock, backswingposition and the three o'clock follow-through position. Of coarse, idealrotation for an individual golfer may not include any instance of truetwo-plane-merger. The zone of the golf swing below this horizontal lineis referred to as the two plane perpendicular zone or impact zone.

The rotation of the club shaft and the club lace plane to bring aboutapproximate two-plane-merger utilizes a group of opposing muscles in,the arms and hands referred to as the “rotational opposing musclegroup.” With an observer in a face-to-face perspective with a righthanded or left handed golfer, the two sets of opposing muscles in therotational opposing muscle group are referred to as the“counter-clockwise rotational muscles” and the “clockwise rotationalmuscles,” The counter-clockwise rotational muscles move the club faceplane in counter-clockwise direction, such that if the face-to-faceobserver were, looking at the clubface plane as the hand on a clock, itwould be moving from 12:00 towards 9:00. It follows that, in the sameperspective, the clockwise muscles move the club face plane from 12:00towards 3:00.

Over-action of either set of opposing rotational muscles will result inrotational errors. During the backswing of a right-handed golfer, overaction of the counter-clockwise rotational muscles will result in anangle of rotation of the club face plane greater than ideal rotation andan “open” club face position, Over action of the clockwise rotationalmuscles will result in an angle of rotation of the club face plane lessthan ideal rotation and a “shut” or “closed” club face position.

During the backswing of a left-handed golfer, over action of theclockwise rotational muscles will result in an angle of rotation of theclub face plane of greater than ideal rotation and an open club faceposition, Over action of the counter clockwise rotational muscles willresult in an angle of rotation of the club face plane less than idealrotation and a shut or closed club face position.

A third group of opposing muscles in the arms and hands controls thehinging movement of the club during the swing. This group of opposingmuscles is referred to as the “hinge opposing muscle group” and iscomposed of two sets of opposing muscles, the “hinge loading muscles”and the “hinge releasing muscles.”

In a face-to-face perspective with a right-handed or left-handed aolfer,the hinae opposing muscle group can be isolated by elevating andlowering the head of the club within the vertical club face plane at thesix o'clock address position. While keepina the arms and the rest of thebody in relatively fixed position, maximal elevation of the club headwithout rotation of the club face plane demonstrates maximum andisolated function of the hinge loading muscles. Returning the maximallyelevated club head to the six o'clock address position without rotationof the club face plane similarly demonstrates maximum and isolatedfunction of the hinge releasing muscles.

For a right-handed golfer, the hinge angle φ is the angle between theclub shaft and the left forearm. For a left-handed golfer, the hingeangle φ is the angle between the club shaft and the right forearm.Professional golfers will intentionally vary the change in their hingeangle depending on the type of shot they are playing. Given thatprofessional golfers will frequently flatten their downswing club shaftplane in relation to their backswing club shaft plane, it is incorrectto assume that the address hinge angle will be identical to the impacthinge angle.

To illustrate hinge errors, the intentional change in the hinge angleduring the backswing will be arbitrarily set at ninety degrees. An underloaded hinge error occurs during the backswing when the change in thehinge angle is less than ninety degrees. An over loaded hinge erroroccurs during the backswing when the change in the hinge angle isgreater than ninety degrees.

An early release of the hinge angle error during the downswing occurswhen the golfer allows the hinge angle to begin increasing before theclub shaft approaches a horizontal position relative to the ground. Thisis one of the most common errors in golf and is referred to as“casting.” This power wasting error is called casting because the motionresembles what a fisherman intentionally does with his wrists whencasting the end of his fishing line towards a landing spot target.Casting is definitely the most common and swing-disrupting hingingerror. A late release of the hinge angle error during the downswingoccurs when the golfer does not allow the hinge angle to beginincreasing at the appropriate hinge release point. This, is a veryuncommon error.

An under released hinge angle error occurs during the downswing when thegolfer does not allow the hinge angle to increase to the ideal impacthinge angle. This error plays a role in hitting “thin” shots and“topped” shots. A thin shot occurs when ball is struck at a place belowthe “sweet spot.” The sweet spot is the ideal point of impact on theclub face. A topped shot occurs when the lower edge of the club facestrikes the ball above its equator, resulting in a downward trajectoryof the ball into the ground. An over released hinge angle error occursduring the downswing when the golfer allows the hinge angle to increasebeyond the ideal impact hinge angle. This error plays a role in hitting“fat” shots. A fat shot occurs when the lower edge of the club facestrikes the ground before the club face contacts the ball.

A fourth group of opposing muscles controls the arc of the swing. Thearc of the swing refers to the path of the club head and is determinedby the amount of extension of the hands away from the golfer's body, thetiming of the wrist hinge, the amount of flexion of the left elbow of aright-handed golfer, the amount of flexion of the right elbow of aleft-handed golfer, the amount of shoulder turn, the amount of hip turn,and the amount of lateral movement of the golfer's torso (also referredto as “sway”). This group of opposing muscles is referred to as the “arcopposing muscle group” and is comprised of the “arc enhancing muscles”and the “arc contracting muscles.”

Some professional golfers, such as Tiger Woods, intentionally try tocreate as much arc as possible in their swings. Others, such as NickFaldo, opt for a shorter arc with an earlier wrist hinge.

It follows that arc errors occur simply when the actual arc of agolfer's individualized swing is not located at the ideal arc. Over-arcerrors occur when the actual arc is greater than the ideal arc.Under-arc errors occur when the actual arc is less than the ideal arc.

Along with hinging errors, arc errors play a role in hitting topped andfat shots as well as shanked shots (ball contacts the hosel where theclub shaft attaches to the club head) and toed shots (ball contacts theclub face outside of the sweet spot toward the distal end of the clubface).

It should also be appreciated that in a complex motion like the golfswing there are other opposing muscle groups, in addition to the fouropposing muscle groups mentioned above, which can also be delineated andtrained.

Speed is a swing variable that is influenced by the combined actions ofall the opposing muscle groups in the swing. The speed of the backswingis typically slower than the speed of the downswing. Variation in thespeed of the swing and the timing of the transition between thebackswing and downswing create the tempo of the swing. Speed and tempoare much easier to manipulate and manage once the golfer has acquiredthe proper muscle memory for their ideal club shaft plane, idealtwo-plane merger, ideal hinging, ideal arc and ideal performance ofother opposing muscle groups.

The exercising and improvement of memory patterns of opposing musclegroups, such as, for example, the four opposing muscle groups describedabove, can be accomplished by working the various sets of opposingmuscles through motions which are akin to the motions typically utilizedwhen swinging a golf club in the normal fashion. If the dominant, orstronger, set of opposing muscles is exercised to the same extent as thedominated, or weaker, set of opposing muscles, any strength imbalancebetween the two sets of opposing muscles will be undesirably maintained.If the dominated set of opposing muscles is exercised solely in aneffort to bring the strength level thereof in line with the dominatingset of opposing muscles, then the dominating muscles would tend to losemuscle tone, and, the desired memory patterns of the two sets ofopposing muscles would be difficult, if not impossible, to attain.

Thus, there is a need for a muscle training apparatus and methods ofexercising which will provide simultaneous sustained exercising of setsof opposing muscles leading to the development of desired memorypatterns, while, at the same time, processing the dominated set ofopposing muscles through a more strenuous exercise program, toeventually provide balanced muscle strength of the sets of opposingmuscles. These and other needs are met by various embodiments of aninvention that provides methods of exercising muscles used in moving ahandheld implement.

In one embodiment, a muscle training apparatus determinescharacteristics of a movement of a shaft of an implement by a personduring performance of a useful or recreational function. The muscletraining apparatus of this embodiment includes a support structurehaving multiple arms extending outwardly from a central portion of thesupport structure, including a first arm and a second arm disposed to anopposite side of the central portion from the first arm. Each has aproximal end and a distal end. An attachment mechanism reversiblyattaches the central portion of the support structure to the shaft ofthe implement, so that the proximal ends of the arms are disposedadjacent the shaft.

The apparatus includes a first sensor disposed adjacent the distal endof the first arm and a second sensor disposed adjacent the distal end ofthe second arm. The first sensor generates a first sensor signalindicative of a plurality of first positions and first directions oftravel of the distal end of the first arm during the movement. Thesecond sensor generates a second sensor signal indicative of a pluralityof second positions and second directions of travel of the distal end ofthe second arm during the movement. The first and second positions andthe first and second directions of travel of the first sensor and thesecond sensor at any particular point in the movement define anindividual average shaft velocity vector coinciding with the directionof travel of the shaft, and an individual shaft displacement vectoraligned with the first position and the second position at theparticular point.

The apparatus includes a processor for calculating a plurality ofindividual average shaft velocity vectors, individual shaft displacementvectors, individual normal vectors, and corresponding individualimplement shaft planes based on the fiirst and second sensor signals. Atany particular point in the movement, an individual implement shaftplane coincides with a corresponding individual average shaft velocityvector and an individual shaft displacement vector at the particularpoint. This plane is perpendicular to an individual normal vector at theparticular point.

In some embodiments, the processor determines whether the differencebetween the individual shaft planes, and an ideal individual shaft planeexceeds a shaft plane tolerance at one or more positions during themovement. The processor generates a shaft plane error signal when thedifference exceeds the shaft plane tolerance.

Some embodiments of the muscle training apparatus include forcegenerators attached adjacent the distal ends of the arms that generate atraining force based on the shaft plane error signal. In a preferredtraining method, the training force urges the shaft in a direction thatwould increase the difference if the training force is not opposed bymuscle force exerted by the person. This training method is referred toas “error augmentation.”

An alternative training method involves generating a training force thaturges the shaft in a direction that would decrease the difference if thetraining force is not opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.This training method is referred to as “guiding.”

A third training method involves generating training forces that urgethe shaft in random directions. This training method is referred to as“noisy.”

In some embodiments, the support structure includes a third arm and afourth arm disposed to an opposite side of the central portion from thethird arm. The arms are arranged such that a line parallel to the thirdand fourth arms is perpendicular to a line parallel to the first andsecond arms. A third sensor is disposed adjacent the distal end of thethird arm and a fourth sensor is disposed adjacent the distal end of thefourth arm. The third sensor generates a third sensor signal indicativeof a plurality of third positions and third directions of travel of thedistal end of the third arm during the swing. The fourth sensorgenerates a fourth sensor signal indicative of a plurality of fourthpositions and fourth directions of travel of the distal end of thefourth arm during die movement. The first position, second position,third position and fourth position at any particular point in themovement define an implement face plane at the particular point. Theprocessor calculates the implement face plane based on the first,second, third, and fourth sensor signals.

In some embodiments, the processor also calculates a rotation anglebetween the implement face plane and the corresponding implement shaftplane at one or more positions during the movement. In some embodiments,the processor determines whether the difference between the rotationangle and an ideal rotation angle exceeds a rotation angle tolerance atone or more positions during the movement. The processor generates arotation error signal when the difference exceeds the rotation angletolerance.

Some embodiments of the muscle training apparatus include forcegenerators attached adjacent the distal ends of the arms that generate atraining force based on the rotation error signal. In the erroraugmentation training method, the training force urges the shaft torotate in a direction that would increase the difference if the trainingforce is not opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the guiding training method, the training force urges the shaft torotate in a direction that would decrease the difference if the trainingforce is not opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the noisy training method, the training force urges the shaft torotate in random directions.

In some embodiments, the muscle training apparatus includes a fifthsensor attached adjacent the elbow and a sixth sensor attached adjacentthe wrist of the person moving the implement. The fifth sensor generatesa fifth sensor signal indicative of a plurality of fifth positions andfifth directions of travel of the elbow during the movement. The sixthsensor generates a sixth sensor signal indicative of a plurality ofsixth positions and sixth directions of travel of the wrist during themovement. The fifth and sixth positions and the fifth and sixthdirections of travel at any particular point in the movement define anindividual average forearm velocity vector that coincides with thedirection of travel of the forearm of the person, and an individualforearm displacement vector aligned with the fifth position and sixthposition at the particular point.

The processor, calculates a plurality of individual average forearmvelocity vectors, a plurality of individual forearm displacementvectors, a plurality of individual normal vectors, and a plurality ofcorresponding individual forearm planes based on the fifth and sixthsensor signals. At any particular point in the movement, an individualforearm plane coincides with a corresponding individual average forearmvelocity vector and an individual forearm displacement vector at theparticular point. This plane is perpendicular to an individual normalvector at the particular point.

In some embodiments, the processor calculates a hinge angle between anindividual forearm displacement vector and a corresponding individualshaft displacement vector at one or more positions during the movement.In some embodiments, the processor determines whether the differencebetween the hinge angle and an ideal hinge angle exceeds a hinge angletolerance at one or more positions during the movement. The processorgenerates a hinge error signal when the difference exceeds the hingeangle tolerance.

Some embodiments of the muscle training apparatus include forcegenerators attached adjacent the distal ends of the arms that generate atraining force based on the hinge error signal. In the erroraugmentation training method, the training force urges the shaft in ahinge direction that would increase the difference if the training forceis not opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the guiding training method, the training force urges the shaft in ahinge direction that would decrease the difference if the training forceis not opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the noisy training method, the training force urges the shaft inrandom hinge directions.

In some etribodiments, the muscle training apparatus includes a seventhsensor attached adjacent a xiphoid process at a lower portion of thesternum of the person moving the implement. The seventh sensor generatesa seventh sensor signal indicative of a plurality of seventh positionsand seventh directions of travel of the xiphoid process during themovement. The seventh positions and seventh directions of travel at anyparticular point in the movement define an individual average xiphoidprocess velocity vector coinciding with the direction of travel of thexiphoid process of the person, and an individual arc displacement vectoraligned between the second position and seventh position at theparticular point.

The processor of these embodiments calculates a plurality of individualaverage arc velocity vectors, a plurality of individual arc displacementvectors, a plurality of individual normal vectors, and a plurality ofcorresponding individual arc planes based on the second and seventhsensor signals. At any particular point in the movement, an individualarc plane coincides with a corresponding individual average arc velocityvector and an individual arc displacement vector at the particularpoint. This plane is perpendicular to an individual normal vector at theparticular point.

In some embodiments, the processor calculates an arc distance betweenthe seventh position and the second position during the movement. Insome embodiments, the processor determines whether the differencebetween the arc distance and an ideal arc distance exceeds an arcdistance tolerance at one or more positions during the movement. Theprocessor generates an are error signal when the difference exceeds thearc distance tolerance.

Some embodiments of the muscle training apparatus include forcegenerators attached adjacent the distal ends of the arms for generatinga training force based on the arc error signal. In the erroraugmentation training method, the training force urges the shaft in adirection that would increase the difference if the training force isnot opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the guiding training method, the training force urges the shaft in adirection that would decrease the difference if the training force isnot opposed by muscle force exerted by the person.

In the noisy training method, the training force urges the shall inrandom directions.

In various embodiments, the reversibly attachable muscle trainer withforce generators may be attached to various handheld implements that aremoved when in use, such as a golf club, a baseball bat a softball bat, atennis racket, a racket ball racket, an axe, a hammer, a maul, a weapon,a video gaming implement and an automated reality implement. This listcould include any handheld implement used to perform a useful orrecreational function. Even though error augmentation, guidance, andnoise are the feedback methods detailed herein, various other feedbackmethods could be employed in using the reversibly attachable muscletrainer.

Another potential use for the reversibly attachable muscle trainer is toprovide feedback forces for video gaming implements or automated realityimplements. Activation of force generators on the muscle trainer atprecise times during the video game or automated reality exercise wouldgive the participant a more real world experience. One example is use ofthe force oenerators to provide simulated gun recoil.

Embodiments directed to this use provide neuromotor feedback to a persongrasping an automated reality implement that is part of an automatedreality system during performance of a useful or recreational automatedreality function. A method for providing feedback include the followingsteps:

-   -   (a) attaching a feedback apparatus to the automated reality        implement such that the weight of the feedback apparatus is        supported entirely by the automated reality implement;    -   (b) the feedback apparatus sensing positions of the automated        reality implement;    -   (c) the feedback apparatus receiving one or more signaling        inputs provided by the person or the automated reality system;    -   (d) the feedback apparatus applying one or more external forces        to the automated reality implement; and    -   (e) the person performing a movement of the a omated reality        implement while the one or more external forces are applied,

Another related embodiment provides neuromotor feedback to a persongrasping a video game implement that is part of a video game systemduring performance of a video game. The method of this embodimentincludes:

-   -   (a) attaching a feedback apparatus to the video game implement        such that the weight of the feedback apparatus is supported        entirely by the video game implement;    -   (b) the feedback apparatus sensing positions of the video game        implement;    -   (c) the feedback apparatus receiving one or more signaling        inputs provided by the person or the video game system;    -   (d) the feedback apparatus applying one or more external forces        to the video game implement; and    -   (e) the person performing a movement of the video game implement        while the one or more external forces are applied.

Another embodiment provides a method of exercising muscles typicallyused by a person when attempting to perform an ideal movement of animplement during performance of a useful or recreational tlinction. Thismethod includes:

-   -   (a) attaching a muscle trainer to the implement such that the        weight of the muscle trainer is supported entirely by the        implement;    -   (b) the muscle trainer determining the ideal movement of the        implement for the person    -   (c) the person performing a movement of the implement by        application of forces exerted by the muscles of the person;    -   (d) the muscle trainer determining a difference between the        movement of step (c) and the ideal movement determined in        step (b) at a plurality of points during the movement of step        (c);    -   (e) the muscle trainer applying one or more external forces to        the implement;    -   (f) the person performing a movement of the implement by        application of forces exerted by the muscles of the person while        the one or more external forces are applied.

A further embodiment provides a method of limiting domination of adominating muscle of two opposing muscles typically used by a personwhen attempting to perform an ideal movement of an implement duringperformance of a useful or recreational function. The dominating muscleapplies a. dominating force to the implement in a dominating forcedirection, and a non-dominating, muscle of the two opposing musclesapplies a non-dominating force to the implement in a non-dominatingforce direction. The non-dominating force direction is substantiallyopposite the dominating force direction, and the dominating forceexceeds the non-dominating force. If the two opposing muscles were ofappropriate strength, the two opposing muscles would desirably applyopposing forces to the implement at appropriate levels to perform theideal movement. The method thereby trains the opposing muscles toconsistently perform the ideal movement. The method includes:

-   -   (a) attaching a muscle trainer to the implement such tha.tl the        weight of the muscle trainer is supported entirely by the        implement;    -   (b) the muscle trainer determining the ideal movement of the        implement for the person;    -   (c) the person performing a movement of the implement by        application of forces exerted by the two opposing muscles of the        person;    -   (d) the muscle trainer determining, a difference between the        movement of step (c) and the ideal movement determined in        step (b) at a plurality of points during the movement of step        (c), where the difference at each point indicates the dominating        three direction at that point;    -   (e) the muscle trainer applying one or more external forces to        the implement to urge the implement in a direction; and    -   (f) the person performing a movement of the implement by        application of forces exerted by the two opposing muscles of the        person while the one or more external forces are applied.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Further advantages of the invention are apparent by reference to thedetailed description considered in conjunction with the figures, whichare not to scale so as to more clearly show the details, wherein likereference numbers indicate like elements throughout the several views,and wherein:

FIG. 1 is a perspective view showing a golfer having moved a golf clubfull* through a backswing to a backswing-completion position(hereinafter referred to as the three o'clock “toe down” position byviewing the club as being the hand of a clock) and through a generally“C” shaped path, the plane of which is referred to as a club shaftplane, representing the ideal plane of travel of a shaft of the golfclub during the backswing thereof.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view showing a golfer with the club havingnearly reached the backswing completion position, and being locatedundesirably behind the ideal club shaft plane of FIG. 1;

FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing a golfer with the club havingnearly reached the backswing completion position and being locatedundesirably in front of the ideal club shaft plane of FIG. 1;

FIGS. 4A and 4B are perspective views of a reversibly attachable muscletrainer in accordance with preferred embodiments of the invention;

FIG. 5 is a front perspective view showing a golfer gripping a golfingimplement in a six o'clock position with the muscle trainer attached ina first position in accordance with a preferred embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 6 is a front perspective view showing a golfer in a nine o'clock“toe up” position, relative to the six o'clock position of FIG. 5 whilegripping the golfing implement with the muscle trainer attached in thefirst position in accordance with a preferred embodiment of theinvention;

FIG. 7 is a front perspective view showing a golfer gripping a golfingimplement in a six o'clock position with the muscle trainer of FIG. 4Aattached in a second position in accordance with a preferred embodimentof the invention;

FIG. 8 is a front perspective view showing a golfer in a nine o'clock“toe up” position, relative to the six o'clock position of FIG. 7 whilegripping the golfing implement with the muscle trainer of FIG. 4Aattached in the second position in accordance with a preferredembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 9 is a front perspective view showing a golfer gripping a golfingimplement in a six o'clock position with the muscle trainer of FIG. 4Battached in a third position in accordance with a preferred embodimentof the invention;

FIG. 10 is a front perspective view showing a golfer in a nine o'clock“toe up” position, relative to the six o'clock position of FIG. 9 whilegripping the golfing implement with the muscle trainer of FIG. 4Battached in the third position in accordance with a preferred embodimentof the invention;

FIG. 11 is a front perspective view showing a golfer gripping the muscletrainer of FIG. 4B, with the muscle trainer in a six o'clock positionand oriented to exercise hinge muscles in accordance with a preferredembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 12 is a side perspective view showing the right side of a golfergripping the muscle trainer of FIG. 4B, with the muscle trainer, in asix o'clock position and oriented to exercise hinge muscles inaccordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 13 depicts a front perspective view of a golfer gripping anembodiment of the muscle trainer having multiple force generators forgenerating forces in multiple directions;

FIG. 14 depicts a probability square representing nine states of motionire the two-plane-merger zone of the golf swing;

FIG. 15 depicts a probability square representing nine states of motionin the impact zone of the golf swing;

FIG. 16 depicts a probability cube representing, twenty-seven states ofmotion in the two-plane-merger zone of the golf swing;

FIG. 17 depicts a probability cube representing twenty-seven states ofmotion in the impact zone of the golf swing;

FIG. 18 depicts a functional block diagram of a swing trainer systemaccording, to a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 19 depicts a flowchart of a method for comparing an actual clubshaft plane to an ideal club shaft plane and generating club face planetraining forces according to a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 20 depicts forearm position sensors and a xiphoid processpositioning sensor according to a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 21 depicts a flowchart of a method for comparing an actual clubface plane rotation to an ideal club face plane rotation and generatingclub face plane rotation training forces according to a preferredembodiment of the invention;

FIG. 22 depicts a flowchart of a method for comparing an actual hingeangle to an ideal hinge angle and generating hinge angle training forcesaccording to a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 23 depicts a flowchart of a method for comparing an actual arc toan ideal arc and generating arc training forces according to, apreferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 24 depicts a flowchart of a method for determining an ideal swingmotion during a swing of an implement with muscle trainer 44 attachedaccording to a preferred embodiment of the invention;

FIG. 25 depicts a graphical representation of a club shaft plane and aclub face plane;

FIG. 26 depicts motion sensors disposed in a sensor plane coincidingwith a club face plane;

FIG. 27 depicts an angular orientation between a club face plane normalvector and a club shaft plane normal vector during a backswing motion;

FIG. 28 depicts an angular orientation between a club face plane normalvector and a club shaft plane normal vector during a downswing motion;

FIG. 29 depicts a graphical representation of a club shaft plane, a clubface plane, and a left forearm plane;

FIG. 30 depicts niotion sensors disposed in a sensor plane that isperpendicular to a club shaft, and sensors disposed on a forearm and onthe body centerline of a person swinging the club;

FIG. 31 depicts motion sensors disposed in a sensor plane coincidingwith a club shaft plane;

FIG. 32 depicts a gun simulator with a quad-propulsion assembly,

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

Referring to FIG. 1, a golfer 30 has completed a backswing of a golfclub 32, with the club being at the peak of the backswing, orbackswing-completion position, and poised for the beginning of adownswing of the club, in anticipation of the completion of a fullstroke. The club 32 includes a club shaft 34 extending between a distalend and a proximal end thereof. A club head 36 is mounted on the distalend of the shaft 34, and a grip 38 is formed about a portion of theshaft at or, near the proximal end of the shaft.

The grip 38 typically extends from its outboard end disposed at theproximal end of the shaft 34 towards the distal end of the shaft, andterminates at an inboard end of the grip along an intermediate portionof the shaft. In preparation for swinging the club 32, the golfer 30positions the golfer's hands on the grip 38 in a conventionalclub-gripping manner, whereby the thumb of one hand, for example, theright hand, is closer to the inboard end of the grip 38 than the thumbof the other hand. For description purposes, the thumb that is closer tothe inboard end of the grip 38 is referred to herein as the inboardthumb.

Prior to initiating the backswing, the golfer 30 has placed the golfer'shands around the grip 38 in the conventional golf-gripping manner, andhas addressed a golf ball 40, which is located in front of the golfer atan address, or six o'clock, position (FIG. 5), ideally to align thesweet spot of the club head 36 with the ball.

During the backswing movement of the club 32 from the six o'clock positon to the backswing-completion position illustrated in FIG. l, thegolfer 30 moves the club shaft 34 through a generally “C” shaped path42, referred to hereinafter as the club shaft plane. The ideal clubshaft plane flattens and skews slightly during the downswing to create aseparate and distinct ideal downswing club shaft plane. The golfer'sability to generate an. ideal downswing Club shaft plane is dependent onthe golfer's ability to maintain an ideal backswing club shaft plane. Bymaintaining the club within these ideal club shaft planes, the golfer ismore likely to strike the golf ball 40 with the sweet spot of the clubface 52 to attain the desired trajectory and direction of the ball.

While professional golfers occasionally make errant shots, such shotsare infrequent. With their inherent ability, training regimen, musclebalance and muscle memory patterns, the professionals consistently makeshots that attain the desired trajectory and direction of travel of theball 40. However, most other golfers continuously wrestle with thenagging problem of being unable to swing the golf club 32 in such amanner to bring about the lofty goal of consistent and desired balltrajectory and direction. While it is unlikely that mostnon-professional golfers will ever attain the inherent abilitydemonstrated by professional golfers, the non-professional golfers canimprove their playability of the game of golf through the training ofselected muscles used in the swinging of a golf club.

As a starting point, in order to attain the desired result, the golfer30 must possess the ability to properly grip the club 32, and tomaintain an appropriate stance and posture when swinging the club. Then,the golfer 30 must commit to exercising certain muscle groups, which arelocated in their hands, arms, shoulders and other parts of the body,necessary to provide the consistent ability to produce good golf shotsunder any kind of pressure.

Various embodiments of muscle trainers described herein are designed tofacilitate methods of exercising and training the appropriate musclestypically utilized by the golfer 30 in the swinging of the club 32. Suchexercises are designed to enhance the strength and balance of thesemuscles, and to fine tune the muscle memory patterns necessary forconsistent production of good golf shots. The methods of exercisingaccomplished by the use of the muscle trainers described herein can beappreciated by an understanding of the below-described principles of therelationships between the swinging of the golf club 32 and the musclesand muscle groups involved in such swinging action.

In the two-plane-merger golf swing theory, the two planes are referredto as the club shaft plane 42 and the club thee plane. With regard tothe club shaft plane, it would be very diffictilt, if not impossible,for a human being to swing the golf club 32 through a complete strokewhile keeping the club shaft 34 in one club shaft plane which is a trueplane. Hence, it is correct to state that the path in which the clubshaft travels is not typically a true plane. As discussed above, thereare an infinite number of singular positions of the club shaft 34 alongthe golf club's path of travel throughout an entire swing. At each ofthese positions, there is a single plane that coincides with the clubshaft's instantaneous direction vector. The composite of these infinitenumber of singular club shalt planes has been referred to herein as theclub shaft plane.

The club face plane represents the position of the club face 52, inspace, during the swing. Regardless of the loft of the club face, theclub face plane represents the position of the club face as if the clubface had zero degrees of loft, and is more appropriately defined as atrue plane since it is, an extension of the surface of the zero degreeclub face. The concept of the club face plane helps one to visualize therelationship between the movement of the club face 52 and the club shaft34 during the swinging motion of the club.

At the address, or six o'clock, position (FIG. 5), the club face planeis ideally a vertical plane which is essentially perpendicular to theclub shaft plane. During the backswing (FIG. 1), the club face 52 andthe club face plane are rotated, by the golfer, about the axis of theclub shaft 34 to allow for a mechanically efficient movement in whichthe club face plane slices through the air in an aerodynamic fashion.Ideally, for a right handed golfer in the first half of his backswing,the club face plane is rotated approximately ninety degrees in acounter-clockwise direction such that, somewhere between the 8 o'clockand 10 o'clock positions, the club face plane approximately merges, andis co-planar, with the club shaft plane 42. This approximate ninetydegree rotation creates what is referred to as the merged position. Atthe backswing completion position and during the downswing, the clubface plane remains approximately merged with the club shaft plane untiljust before impact when the club face plane is rotated approximatelyninety degrees into an impact position, which is once againapproximately perpendicular to the club shaft plane. The relationship ofthe club face plane and the club shaft plane during the follow-throughis a mirror image of the relationship of the two planes during thebackswing with an approximate remerger of the two planes occurringbetween the four o'clock and two o'clock positions. This action definestwo-plane-merger. Of course, ideal club face plane rotation for anindividual golfer may not include any instance of true two-plane-merger.Ideal club face plane rotation is essential in developing a repeatableswing pattern which is effective under pressure.

It follows that the two-plane-merger zone of the golf swing exists abovethe substantially horizontal line connecting the nine o'clock backswingposition and the three o'clock follow-through position. The zone of thegolf swing below this horizontal line is referred to as the two planeperpendicular zone or impact zone.

With respect to the club shaft plane 42 shown in FIG. 1, it is notuncommon for the non-professional golfer 30 to position the club shaft32 outside of the ideal club shaft plane. Such deviation from the idealclub shaft plane is referred to herein as positioning the club shaft infront of or behind (i.e., above or below, respectively, as viewed inFIG. 1) the ideal club shaft plane. Referring to FIG. 2, the illustratedlocation of the club 32 indicates that the club shaft 34 is in aposition which is behind the ideal club shaft plane 42 illustrated inFIG. 1. Referring; to FIG. 3, the illustrated location of the club 32indicates that the club shaft 34 is in a position which is in front ofthe ideal club shaft plane 42 illustrated in FIG. 1.

It is important for the golfer to minimize, and hopefully eliminate, theamount of club shaft deviation, which is behind, or in front of, theideal club shaft plane. This requires a proper and balanced functioningof a group of opposing muscles in the golfer's hands and forearms. Thismuscle group is referred to as the club shaft plane opposing musclegroup. The two sets of opposing muscles within the club shaft planegroup are the behind-the-plane muscles and the front-of-the-planemuscles. The behind-the-plane muscles are responsible for positioningthe club shaft 34 behind the ideal club shalt plane 42 and thefront-of-the-plane muscles are responsible for positioning the clubshaft 34 in front of the ideal club shaft plane 42. When these two setsof opposing muscles are acting in concert, where the sets are of equalstrength and balance, the golfer 30 is able to swing the golf club 32with the club shaft 34 in the ideal club shaft plane 42.

The direction of any deviation of the club shaft 34 during the swing,whether such direction is behind or in front of the ideal club shaftplane 42, can be determined by an observer of the golfer during theswing and presented to the golfer for use in taking corrective actionsuch as that described herein. Also, a video camera can be used torecord the golfer's direction of deviation, and thereafter observed bythe golfer 30 in a video playback fbr use in taking corrective action.

When the golfer 30 is standing in the address position, as illustratedin FIG. 5, the hands, wrists, arms and shoulders of the golfer form atriangle. For a right-handed golfer, the front-of-the-plane muscles arelocated on the back of the left hand, the outside of the left forearm,the palm of the right hand and the inside of the right forearm. Thebehind-the-plane muscles are the mirror image of the front-of-the-planemuscles. For a left-handed golfer, these relationships are exactlyopposite.

During the swing, the front-of-the-plane muscles and thebehind-the-plane muscles are, in essence, in a tug-of-war, with the twosets of muscles being at opposite ends of an imaginary rope. If thebehind-the-plane muscles are overacting, or dominating, the pullingforce of these muscles moves the club shaft 34 behind the ideal clubshaft plane 42. The opposite effect occurs if the front-of-the-planemuscles are overacting, or dominating. In such situations, astrengthening of the dominated muscle set is required in order topreclude either set from dominating the other set, thereby bringingbalance to the tug-of-war and maintaining the club shaft 34 in the idealclub shaft plane 42.

The tug-of-war between these two sets of opposing club shaft planemuscles is further complicated by the need for an approximate ninetydegree rotation of the club shaft 34 and club face 52 to merge the clubface plane with the club shaft plane 42 as described above. Rotationerrors occur when the amount of club face plane rotation is eithergreater or less than the ideal amount of rotation. When the angle ofclub face plane rotation is less than ideal, the club face 52 is said tobe in a closed or shut position. When the angle of club face planerotation is greater than ideal, the club face 52 is said to be in anopen position.

The rotation of the club shaft 34 and the club face 52 utilizes a groupof opposing muscles known as the rotational opposing muscle group. Whenviewing a golfer's swing while standing in front of the golfer (FIGS. 5and 6), the rotational muscle group can be divided into two sets ofopposing muscles: the counter-clockwise rotational muscles and theclockwise rotational muscles.

Over action of either set of opposing rotational muscles will result inthe rotation errors described above. For example, during the backswingof a right-handed golfer, over action of the clockwise rotationalmuscles will result in closed club face position. Over action of thecounter-clockwise rotational muscles will result in an open club faceposition.

A third group of opposing muscles in the arms and hands controls thehinging movement of the club 32 during the swing. This group of opposingmuscles is referred to as the hinge opposing muscle group and iscomposed of two sets of opposing muscles, the hinge loading muscles andthe hinge releasing muscles.

In a face-to-face perspective with a right handed or left handed golfer,the hinge opposing muscle group can be isolated by elevating andlowering the distal end of the muscle trainer within the vertical clubface plane at the six o'clock address position. While keeping the armsand the rest of the body in a relatively fixed. position, maximalelevation of the distal end of the muscle trainer without rotation ofthe club face plane demonstrates maximum and isolated function of thehinge loading muscles. Returning the maximally elevated distal end ofthe muscle trainer to the six o'clock address position without rotationof the club face plane, similarly demonstrates maximum and isolatedfunction of the hinge releasing muscles.

As shown in FIG. 12, for a right handed golfer, the hinge angle is theangle φ between the shaft 54 and the hatched line extending in asubstantially coaxial fashion from the distal aspect of the leftforearm. For a left handed golfer, the hinge angle is the angle φbetween the shaft 54 and a similar imaginary line which is coaxial withthe long axis of the right forearm and which extends from the distalaspect of the right forearm. Professional golfers will intentionallyvary their hinge angle depending on the type of shot they are playing.Given that professional golfers will frequently flatten their downswingclub shaft, plane in relation to their backswing club shaft plane, it isincorrect to assume that the address hinge angle will be identical tothe impact hinge angle.

To illustrate hinge errors, the intentional change in the hinge angle φduring the backswing will be set at ninety degrees. An under loadedhinge error occurs during the backswing when the change in the hingeangle φ is less than ninety degrees. An over loaded hinge error occursduring the backswing when the change in hinge angle φ is greater thanninety degrees.

An early release of the hinge angle error during the downswing occurswhen the golfer allows the hinge angle φ to begin decreasing before theclub shaft 34 approaches a horizontal position relative to the ground.This is one of the most common errors in golf and is referred to ascasting. A late release of the hinge angle error during the downswingoccurs when the golfer does not allow the hinge angle φ to begindecreasing at the appropriate hinge release point. This is a veryuncommon error.

An under released hinge angle error (+φ_(E) in FIG. 12) occurs duringthe downswing when the golfer does not allow the hinge angle φ todecrease to the ideal impact hinge angle. This error plays a role inhitting thin shots and topped shots. A thin shot occurs when ball 40 isstruck at a place below the sweet spot. The sweet spot is the idealpoint of impact on the club face 52. A topped shot occurs when the loweredge of the club face strikes the ball above its equator, resulting in adownward trajectory of the ball into the ground. An over released hingeangle error (−φ_(E) in FIG. 12) occurs during the downswing when thegolfer allows the hinge angle φ to decrease beyond the ideal impacthinge angle. This error plays a role in hitting fat shots. A fat shotoccurs when the lower edge of the club face strikes the ground beforethe club face contacts the ball.

A fourth group of opposing muscles controls the arc of the club (32)during the swing. The arc of the swing refers to the path of the clubhead and is determined by the amount of extension of the hands away fromthe golfer's body, the timing of the wrist hinge, the amount of flexionof the left elbow of a right-handed golfer, the amount of flexion of theright elbow of a left-handed golfer, the amount of shoulder turn, theamount of hip turn, and the amount of lateral movement of the golfer'storso (also referred to as “sway”). This group of opposing muscles isreferred to as the “arc opposing muscle group” and is comprised of the“arc enhancing muscles” and the “arc contracting muscles.”

In a face-to-face perspective, arc can be measured as the distance fromthe xiphoid process (lower aspect of the sternum) to the distal aspectof the club head (36).

It follows that arc errors occur simply when the actual arc of agolfer's individualized swing is not located at the ideal arc. Over-arcerrors occur when the actual arc is greater than the ideal arc.Under-arc errors occur when the actual arc is less than the ideal arc.

Along with hinging errors, arc errors play a role in hitting topped andfat shots as well as shanked shots (ball contacts the hosel where theclub shaft attaches to the club head) and toed shots (ball contacts theclub face outside of the sweet spot toward the distal end of the clubface).

Speed is a swing variable that is influenced by the combined actions ofall the opposing muscle groups in the swing. The speed of the backswingis typically slower than the speed of the downswing. Variation in thespeed of the swing and the timing of the transition between thebackswing and downswing create the tempo of the swing. Speed and tempoare much easier to manipulate and manage once the golfer has acquiredthe proper muscle memory for their ideal club shalt plane, idealtwo-plane merger, ideal hinging, ideal arc, and ideal performance ofother opposing muscle group actions.

While practicing, a golfer may frequently use positioning drills toimprove the positioning of the club during his swinging motion. Thesepositioning drills are usually performed at a swing speed which is muchslower than the swing speed the golfer uses in actual competition. Evenwith unbalanced muscle groups, reasonable attempts can be made to keepthe club shaft within the ideal club shaft plane and to accomplishtwo-plane merger during periods when the club is being swung slowly.However, it becomes increasingly difficult to accomplish these goalswhen the speed of the swing is increased while striking the ball duringa competitive round of golf. To maintain the ideal club shaft plane,ideal rotation, ideal hinging, and ideal arc when swinging at a speedthe golfer uses during actual competition, there must be an exquisitebalance between the opposing sets of muscles in the club shaft planemuscle group, rotational muscle group, hinge muscle group, and arcmuscle group.

Thus, in order for any golfer suffering from the muscle dominationdeficiencies described above to improve their ability to play the gameof golf, an exercise program to balance the four opposing muscle groupsis an absolute necessity. Given that a golfer wishes to embark on suchan exercise program, the key is to be able to address the specific needsof the muscles of the four groups in such a way that the ideal swingmovements and the resultant ideal ball flight patterns are attainable.

The reversibly attachable muscle trainer 44 described herein is designedto exercise the muscles of the four muscle groups, while placing agreater effort in strengthening the dominated, or weaker, sets ofopposing muscles. In this manner, the dominating sets of muscles areexercised to retain the muscle tone thereof, while at the same time thedominated sets of muscles are worked and exercised morclvigorously toimprove the muscle tone thereof, and to bring the four muscle groupsinto a balanced condition. Further, by working and exercising the fourmuscle groups together, enhanced muscle memory patterns are developedthere between.

Once the four muscle groups have attained parity in strength, balance,and memory patterns, the golfer 30 can maintain the club shaft 34 moreconsistently within the ideal club shaft plane 42, perform properrotation of the club face plane, perform proper hinging action, andperform proper arc to attain desired trajectory, direction, and distanceof travel of the ball 40.

As shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, preferred embodiments of the reversiblyattachable muscle trainer 44 include four force generators 370 a, 370 b,370 c, and 370 d, such as the commercially available QuadPod bySnefflight, Ltd, 18 Kirkwood Drive, Durham, DH1 4ff. In this embodiment,the four force generators 370 a-370 d comprise four electric motors withpropellers attached at opposing ends of carbon fiber arms in a crossarrangement. As shown in FIGS. 12 and 13, the four arms are connected toa bracket assembly 46 that attaches the muscle trainer 44 to the shaft34 of the club 32. The bracket assembly provides for attachment of themuscle trainer 44 in various angular orientations with respect to theshaft 34.

A three-axis accelerometer is attached to the distal end of each of thearms. Preferably, each of the four accelerometers A1, A2, A3, and A4 islocated on the opposite side of the bracing arm from the motor, and maybe attached by sharing the screws that attach the motor to the arm. Inone embodiment, the accelerometers A1-A4 are model number DE-ACCM3Dmanufactured by Dimension Engineering, 899 Moe Drive #21, Akron, Ohio,44310, The trainer 44 also preferably includes a wireless radiotransceiver, a controller, and rechargeable batteries. A functionalblock diagram of the components of the trainer 44 are depicted in FIG.18.

As shown in FIG. 18, this arrangement allows a remote processor 353 toreceive positional data from the accelerometers A1-A4 and otheraccelerometers described hereinafter. The processor 353 then uses thatdata to control the muscle trainer 44 and, thereby, generate trainingforces on the implement being moved by the person being trained

In the following example of use of the muscle trainer 44 and thepractice of a method of exercising the club shaft plane opposing musclegroup, the front-of-the-plane muscles are the set of dominated muscles.

As depicted in FIGS. 5 and 6, the golfer 30 swings the conventional golfclub 32 with the muscle trainer 44 attached so that all four forcegenerators 370 a-370 d are located in the club face plane. This firstattachment position provides maximal training forces for either thefront-of-the-plane muscles or behind-the-plane muscles.

Initially, the golfer 30 (preferably with the guidance of a golfteaching professional) places the club in multiple ideal club shaftplane positions throughout the swing. The positional data from theaccelerometers is transmitted to the processor 353 that uses thispositional data to generate and store a reference ideal club shaft planefor the golfer 30.

The golfer 30 then performs a full swing of the golf club 32 in theprocess of hitting a golf ball toward a target. As stated above, theclub shaft plane will deviate in a behind-the-plane direction and thetrainer 44 will transmit that error data to the processor 353. Theprocessor 353 will then compare the error data to the stored ideal dataand generate control signals that are transmitted to the trainer 44. Thecontrol signals cause all four force generators 370 a-370 d to produceforces that augment the behind-the-plane error movement. This exercisesthe dominated front-of-the plane muscles until the error movement iscorrected.

If the golfer's front-of-the-plane muscles are the dominating muscles,the club shaft plane will deviate in a front-of-the-plane direction andthe trainer 44 will deliver that error data to the processor 353. Theprocessor 353 will then compare the error data to the stored ideal dataand generate control signals that cause all four force generators 370a-370 d to produce forces that augment the front-of-the-plane errormovement. This exercises the dominated behind-the-plane muscles untilthe error movement is corrected.

Alternative force feedback methods include guidance feedback and noisyfeedback. Guidance feedback involves producing threes that minimize anybehind-the-plane or front-of-the-plane error movement and push the golfclub back toward the ideal club shaft plane. Noisy feedback involvesproducing random training forces on the club.

In the following example of use of the muscle'trainer 44 and thepractice of a method of exercising the hinge opposing muscle group, thehinge loading muscles are the set of dominated muscles.

As depicted in FIGS. 7 and 8. the golfer 30 is swinging the conventionalgolf club 32 with the muscle trainer 44 attached in a position that isrotated ninety de re about the club shaft from the position depicted inFIGS. 5 and 6. This second attachment position provides maximal trainingforces for either the hinge loading muscles or the hinge releasingmuscles.

Initially, the golfer 30 (preferably with the guidance of a golfteaching professional) places the club in multiple ideal hinge positionsthroughout the swing. The trainer 44 transmits this positional data tothe processor 353. The processor 353 uses this positional data togenerate and store a reference ideal hinge motion tbr the golfer 30.

The golfer 30 then performs a full swing of the golf club 32 in theprocess of hitting a golf ball toward a target. As stated above, thehinge motion will deviate in an under-loaded hinge direction and thetrainer 44 will transmit that error data to the processor 353. Theprocessor 353 will then compare the error data to the stored ideal dataand generate control signals causing all four force generators 370 a-370d to produce forces that augment the under-loaded hinge error movement.This exercises the dominated hinge loading muscles until the errormovement is corrected.

If the golfer's hinge loading muscles arc the dominating muscles, thehinge motion will deviate in an over-loaded hinge direction and thetrainer 44 will deliver that error data to the processor 353. Theprocessor 353 will then compare the error data to the stored ideal dataand generate control signals to cause all four force generators 370a-370 d to produce forces that augment the over-loaded hinge errormovement. This exercises the dominated hinge releasing muscles until theerror movement is corrected.

Alternative force feedback methods include guidance feedback and noisyfeedback. Guidance feedback involves producing forces that minimize anyunder-loaded hinge or over-loaded hinge error movement and push the golfclub back toward the ideal hinge position. Noisy feedback involvesproducing random training forces on the club.

In the following example of use of the muscle trainer 44 and thepractice of a method of exercising the rotational opposing muscle group,the counter-clockwise rotational muscles are the set of dominatedmuscles.

As depicted in FIGS. 5-8, the golfer 30 is swinging the conventionalgolf club 32 with the muscle trainer 44 attached in a club shaft planetraining orientation (FIGS. 5 and 6) and a hinge training orientation(FIGS. 7 and 8). While these attachment positions provide maximaltraining forces for either the club shaft plane or the binge, eachposition can also provide training forces for rotation. As shown in FIG.4A, the two force generators 370 b and 370 d on the two opposing armsextending perpendicular to the club shaft can create rotational trainingforces when they are simultaneously activated in opposing directions.

Initially, the golfer 30 (preferably with the guidance of a golfteaching professional) places the club in multiple ideal rotationalpositions throughout the swing, and the trainer 44 transmits thecorresponding positional data to the processor 353. The processor 353uses this positional data to generate and store a reference idealrotation for golfer 30.

The golfer 30 then performs a full swing of golf club 32 in the processof hitting a golf ball toward a target. As stated above, rotation willdeviate in a clockwise direction and the trainer 44 will transmit thaterror data to the processor 353. The processor 353 then compares theerror data to the stored ideal data and generates control signals tocause the two force generator 370 b and 370 d to produce forces thataugment the clockwise rotation error movement. This exercises thedominated counter-clockwise rotational muscles until the error movementis corrected.

If, the golfer's counter-clockwise rotational muscles are the dominatingmuscles, rotation will deviate in a counter-clockwise direction and thetrainer 44 will transmit that error data to the processor 353. Theprocessor 353 will then compare, the error data to the stored ideal dataand generate control signals to cause the force generators 370 a and 370d to produce forces that augment the counter-clockwise rotation errormovement. This exercises the dominated clockwise rotational musclesuntil the error movement is corrected.

Alternative force feedback methods include guidance feedback and noisyfeedback. Guidance feedback involves producing forces that minimize anyclockwise rotation or counter-clockwise rotation error movement and pushthe golf club back toward the ideal rotation position. Noisy feedbackinvolves producing random training forces on the club.

In the following example of use of the muscle trainer 44 and thepractice of a method of exercising the arc opposing muscle group, thearc enhancing muscles are the set of dominated muscles.

As depicted in FIGS. 9 and 10, the golfer 30 is swinging theconventional golf club 32 with the muscle trainer 44 attached in aposition wherein the plane of the four propellers is perpendicular tothe club shaft. This third attachment position (shown in FIG. 4B)provides maximal training forces for either the arc enhancing muscles orthe arc contracting muscles.

Initially, the golfer 30 (preferably with the guidance of a golfteaching professional) places the club in multiple ideal arc positionsthroughout the swing. The trainer 44 transmits this positional data tothe processor 353 that uses this positional data to generate and store areference ideal arc motion for golfer 30.

The golfer 30 then performs a full swing of golf club 32 in the processof hitting a golf ball toward a target. As stated above, the arc motionwill deviate in a contracted arc direction and the trainer 44 willtransmit that error data to the processor 353. The processor 353 willthen compare the error data to the stored ideal data and generatecontrol signals to cause all four force generators 370 a-370 d toproduce forces that augment the arc contracting error movement. Thisexercises the dominated arc enhancing muscles until the error movementis corrected.

If the golfer's arc enhancing muscles are the dominating muscles, thearc will deviate in an enhanced arc direction and the trainer 44 willtransmit that error data to the processor 353. The processor 353 willthen compare the error data to the stored ideal data and generatecontrol signals to cause all four force generators 370 a-370 d toproduce threes that augment the arc enhancing error movement. Thisexercises the dominated arc contracting muscles until the error movementis corrected.

Alternative force feedback methods include guidance feedback and noisyfeedback. Guidance feedback involves producing forces that minimize anycontracted arc or enhanced arc error movement and push the golf clubback toward the ideal arc position. Noisy feedback involves producingrandom training forces on the club.

FIG. 13 depicts the simultaneous use of three muscle trainers 44 a, 44b, and 44 c. This arrangement allows for simultaneous training of theclub shaft plane, hinge, rotation, and arc muscles.

With dedicated exercising and use of muscle trainer 44 over a period oftime, the golfer 30 will Obtain a proper club shaft plane, proper hinge,proper rotation, and proper arc muscle memory to the extent that theaction of the hands, wrists and arms can be thought of as being onautomatic pilot. This allows the golfer 30 to easily concentrate onother essentials such as swing speed, tempo, weight shift, and drivingthe downswing with the larger muscles of the torso.

The game of golf, and particularly the swinging of a golf club inplaying the game of golf, has been used above as a centerpiece todescribe the principles of the invention covered herein, as practiced bythe use of the various embodiments and versions of the above-describedmuscle trainer, and the methods of exercising. However, the muscletrainer, and the methods of exercising described above can also be usedto enhance the muscle memory associated with other sports games andactivities. For example, games such as baseball, softball, tennis,racket ball, weight lifting and weight throwing, use of hand heldweapons, use of handheld video gaming implements, and use of automatedreality handheld implements involve action between competing muscles toobtain balance and direction in the particular endeavor.

Indeed, the muscle trainer and the methods of exercising describedherein can be used in many walks of life unrelated to the activitieslisted above. For example, the swinging and directing of a maul, ahammer or an axe into engagement with a target object requires separatemuscle groups. In this regard, the word “implement” as used herein mayrefer to sports-related implements, such as golf clubs, baseball andsoftball bats, tennis and racket ball rackets, weight lifting and weightthrowing devices, handheld weapons, handheld video gaming implement,handheld automated reality implements, labor-related implements, such asmauls, hammers or axes, and any other handheld implement used in theperformance of a useful or recreational functions. Also, the word“shaft” as used herein may refer to any elongate portion of asports-related, weapon-related, handheld video gaming-related orautomated reality-related, or labor-related implement, including but notlimited to any of the implements listed above. Specifically, as thescale of technology diminishes, reversibly attachable motion sensingforce generators may be used for motion training with eating utensils,tooth brushes, writing pens, paint brushes, and. surgical instruments.

Even though error augmentation feedback, guidance feedback, and noisyfeedback are detailed herein, various other feedback methods could beemployed in using the reversibly attachable muscle trainer(s) including,but not limited to, providing augmented reality forces on hand-heldvideo gaming implements and hand-held automated reality implements. Anexample is depicted in FIG. 32 in which a quad-propulsion muscletraining apparatus 600 is attached to a video gaming gun simulator 602such as may be used with a Wii video gaming system. Positioned as if forthe arc training mentioned described above, the apparatus 600 canprovide forces pushing toward the body of the person holding thesimulator 602, thereby simulating gun recoil each time the trigger ispulled. If the force generators of the apparatus 600 are jet or plasmathrusters then an element of augmented projectile discharge occurssimultaneously with the recoil forces. The angle of the force generatorsmay be adjusted to provide various realistic angles of simulated recoil.There are many other real world simulating forces and effects that couldbe generated in a similar fashion using the apparatus.

States of Motion in Two-Plane-Mew Zone and Impact Zone of Golf Swing

FIG. 14 represents nine potential states, of motion in thetwo-plane-merger zone of the golf swing. For the backswing, the ninesquares refer only to the portion of the backswing that extends from thepoint at which club face plane rotation has ended (eight o'clock to teno'clock) to the point of completion of the backswing (three o'clock toedown). The central probability square (I/M) represents a state of idealmotion for this segment of the backswing in which the golf club islocated in an ideal club shaft plane and ideal two-plane-merger is beingmaintained. Given that ideal rotation for a given golfer may involvelimited to no instance of two-plane-merger, “M” could also be taken tostand for “ideal rotation.” The other eight probability squaresrepresent states of improper motion.

For the downswing, the nine squares of FIG. 14 refer only to the portionof the downswing which extends from the backswing completion position(three o'clock toe down) to the point at which club face plane rotationbegins its rapid acceleration phase in the impact zone. The impact zoneextends from around the nine o'clock downswing club shaft positionthrough the three o'clock follow-through club shaft position. In thedownswing segment between three o'clock toe down and nine o'clock, mostprofessional golfers tend to maintain the same degree of rotation theywere in during the same segment of their backswing (nine o'clock, tothree o'clock toe down).

As rapid club face plane rotation begins in the impact zone, a secondprobability diagram, shown in FIG. 15, represents the position of theclub face plane (x axis) and club shaft plane (y axis) at impact.Ideally, the club face plane should return to a position ninety degreesaway from the club shaft plane at impact. This position is referred toas the squared position or being square at impact (+). The other twoimpact positions are the slice position (S) and the hook position (H).The slice position refers to the state of motion in which club faceplane rotation has fallen short of the square position. This position isalso referred to as the open club face position at impact. The bookposition refers to the state of motion in which club face plane rotationhas progressed past the square position. This position is also referredto as the closed club face position at impact.

For a stroke in which the club is swung into the impact zone behind theideal club shaft plane, the club face will approach the ball on a pathwhich is too inside to outside the target line. This non-ideal inside tooutside the target line approach can also be called non-ideal inside outand in this instance means the clubfare approaches the ball from too farinside the target line, crosses the target line at impact, then movestoo far outside the target line after impact. Since this is an errorstate of motion, it can also be called error inside out (EIO).

For a stroke in which the club is swung into the impact zone in theideal club shaft plane, the club face will approach the ball on a pathwhich is just slightly inside out. This state of motion is called idealinside out (IIO).

For a stroke in which the club is swung into the impact zone in front ofthe ideal club shaft plane, the club face will approach the ball on apath which is outside in. This means the club face approaches the ballfrom outside the target, crosses the target line at impact, then movesinside the target line after impact. This state of motion is callederror outside in (EOI). EOI includes the potential path in which theclub face approaches the ball on a path down the target line.

The nine states of motion represented in the nine probability squares ofFIG. 15 produce shots referred to as follows: EIO/S→“push slice”;EIO/+→“push”; EIO/H→“push hook”; IIO/S→“fade”; IIO/+→“draw”;IIO/H→“hook”; EOI/S→“pull slice”; EOI/+→“pull”; and EOI/H→“pull hook”.Obviously, a straight shot has been left out and for good reason. Aperfectly straight shot means a square club face has approached the ballon the target line and stayed on the target line through impact. For afull stroke, this straight trajectory is very hard to reproduce and isnot usually a goal for the professional golfer. Professional golferslike to see shape in their shots and usually prefer either a fade or adraw as their standard trajectory. They make adjustments in their swingsto produce different and more dramatic shape as the specific shotwarrants.

The probability grids of FIGS. 14 and 15 can be superimposed on oneanother as the state of motion located in a certain square in FIG. 14will usually produce the state of motion located in the same square inFIG. 15.

Furthermore, as shown in FIGS. 16 and 17, the probability grids of FIGS.14 and 15 can be converted into probability cubes by adding a z-axisrepresenting the three states of hinging at any point in the swing.Under-hinged (UH) signifies that the hinge angle φ is less than ideal ata given point in the swing (−φ_(E) in FIG. 12 beyond negative hingetolerance). Ideally-hinged (IH) signifies that the hinge angle φ isideal at a given point, or is at least within the −/+ φ_(E) tolerance.Over-hinged (OH) signifies that the hinge angle φ is greater than idealat a given point (+φ_(E) in FIG. 12 beyond positive hinge tolerance).Ordering these three states of hinge motion along the z-axis in the sameway (UH, IH, OH) provides twenty-seven states of potential motion at anypoint in the two-plane-merger zone and in the impact zone. The idealstate of motion is in the center of each probability cube; I/M/IH forthe two-plane-merger zone and IIO/+/IH for the impact zone.

The three states of arc (under-arced=UA, ideally-arced=IA, andover-arced=OA) can also be added to the probability cubes in FIGS. 16and 17. This would provide eighty-one states of potential motion at anypoint in the two-plane merger zone and in the impact zone. The idealstate of motion becomes I/M/IH/IA for the wo-plane-merger zone andIIO/+/IH/IA for the impact zone.

Other error states of motion which are not represented in FIGS. 14-17include but are not limited to those related to the speed of the swingand coordination of foot, leg, and torso movements with the above dubpositions. More complex probability matrices can be developed from theseadditional states of motion. If any single error state of motion or anycombination of error states of motion exists at any point in time in agolfer's swing, the implement and its various biofeedback options can beused to correct the errors. Of course, an ideal golf swing begins withinstruction and attainment of an ideal grip, alignment, stance andposture. Grip, alignment, stance and posture errors will negativelyimpact the attempt to attain the ideal states of motion described above.

Theories representing different concepts of what an “ideal golf swing”should look like can be represented by their own unique probabilitydiagrams. Regardless of the nature of the “ideal golf swing” soughtafter by the golfer and/or their teaching professional, the presentinvention can be used to attain it.

Sensing Swing Errors

As discussed above with reference to FIGS. 4A and 4B, preferredernbodiments of the muscle trainer 44 include one or more swingcharacteristic sensors attached to the carbon fiber frame for sensingdirection and velocity characteristics of golf club 32 to which it isattached for muscle training exercises. (See FIGS. 5-10.) In onepreferred embodiment of the invention, the swing characteristic sensors351 comprise accelerometers that sense acceleration of the club shaft 34and club head 36 in three orthogonal axes. As shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B,the accelerometers are preferably packaged in accelerometer assembliesA1, A2, A3, and A4 positioned near the distal end of each of the fourstraight bracing carbon fiber arms of the muscle trainer 44. In thismanner, three-dimensional acceleration vectors may be measured withrespect to at least four points on the muscle trainer.

Hinge angle errors may be determined using swing characteristic sensorsthat sense the angular relationship between the golf club 32 and thegolfer's left forearm (fir a right-handed golfer). As shown in FIG. 20,a pair of sensors, A5 and A6, are used to determine a vector generallycoinciding with the ulna bone of the golfer's forearm. The sensor A5 ispositioned adjacent the golfer's elbow and the sensor A6 is positionedadjacent the fifth metacarpal (pinky) side of the golfer's wrist. Thesensors A5 and A6 may be accelerometers or other position sensorssimilar to sensors A1, A2, A3, and A4 described above. The sensors A5and A6 may be attached to the golfer's forearm using elastic bands orVelcro straps.

As depicted in FIG. 18, the swing characteristic data as sensed by theswing characteristic sensors 351 is transfirred to a processor 353.Signals from the sensors A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, and A6 may be transmittedvia one or more wireless transmitters 309 c, such as Bluetoothtransmitters, or via a wiring harness connected to the computerprocessor 353. Alternatively, the processor 353 may be located on thecarbon fiber frame of muscle trainer 44.

Based on the measured acceleration data from sensors A1, A2, A3, and A4,the processor 353 preferably calculates the orientation and direction oftravel of the club shaft 34 and the club head 36 in three dimensions.Based on the measured acceleration data from sensors A5 and A6, theprocessor 353 calculates the orientation and direction of travel of thegolfer's forearm in three dimensions. Calculation of thethree-dimensional direction and velocity vectors based on the measuredacceleration is accomplished using integration routines in softwarerunning on the processor 353. One example of a preferred analysisroutine is described hereinafter.

Arc errors may be determined using swing characteristic sensors 351 thatsense the angular relationship between the muscle trainer 44 and thegolfer's xiphoid process (lower aspect of sternum). As shown in FIG. 20,sensor A7 is used to determine a vector generally coinciding with thegolfer's xiphoid process. Sensor A7 may be an accelerometer or otherposition sensor similar to sensors A1, A2, A3, and A4 described above.Sensor A7 may be attached in the region of the golfer's xiphoid processusing elastic bands or Velcro straps.

As depicted in FIG. 18, the swing characteristic data as sensed by thesensors 351 is transferred to a processor 353. Signals from the sensorsA1, A2, A3, A4, and A7 may be transmitted via one or more wirelesstransmitters 309 c, such as Bluetooth transmitters, or via a wiringharness connected to the computer processor 353. Alternatively, theprocessor 353 may be located on the carbon fiber frame of muscle trainer44.

Based on the measured acceleration data from sensors A1, A2, A3, and A4,the processor 353 preferably calculates the orientation and direction oftravel of the club head 36 in three dimensions. Based on the measuredacceleration data from sensor A7, the processor 353 calculates theorientation and direction of travel of the golfer's xiphoid process inthree dimensions. Calculation of the three-dimensional direction andvelocity vectors based on the measured acceleration is accomplishedusing integration routines in software running on the processor 353. Oneexample of a preferred analysis routine is described hereinafter.

It should be appreciated that there could be more than fouraccelerometer assemblies positioned on the muscle trainer 44, and thatthe accelerometer assemblies A1, A2, A3, and A4 and any additionalaccelerometer assemblies can be positioned in various diffeientlocations on the carbon fiber body. The depiction of the locations ofthese assemblies in FIGS. 4A and 4B is one example of four possiblelocations.

It should also be appreciated that there could be more than threeaccelerometer assemblies positioned. on the golfer's body, and that theaccelerometer assemblies A5, A6, and A7 can be positioned in variousdifferent locations on the golfer's arms and body. The depiction of thelocations of these assemblies in FIG. 20 is one example of threepossible locations.

As set forth previously, the swing characteristic sensors 351 maycomprise accelerometer units A1, A2, A3, and A4 located on the muscletrainer 44 (See FIGS. 4A and 4B). In a preferred embodiment of theinvention, acceleration signals from the units A1, A2, A3, and A4 areprovided to a data acquisition board connected to the processor 353where the acceleration signals are conditioned and digitized. As shownin the computational algorithm of FIG. 19, the initial positions ofaccelerometers A1 and A2 are determined at the beginning of a swing(step 400), such as by precise placement of the club head and shaft atpredetermined reference positions (FIG. 5). The muscle trainer 44attached to golf club 32 is then swung (FIG. 6) while sampling theaccelerometer signals A1 and A2 at about one millisecond (or smaller)intervals (step 402). The sampled acceleration data is provided to anumerical ordinary differential equation (ODE) solver running on theprocessor 353. The ODE solver may be implemented as a commerciallyavailable software routine designed for acceleration-to-positionconversions or as a more generally applicable Computer Algebraic System(CAS), such as Mathematica™. Preferably, the solver routine applies aRunge-Kulla method or other equivalent method suited for this purpose.

As shown in FIG. 24, the ideal club shaft plane data has already beenentered into the processor 353 and enters FIG. 19 as input A at step 416of FIG. 19.

Muscle Training, Based on Swing Errors

Continuing with the computational algorithm of FIG. 19, the processor353 then determines (step 418) if the difference between the actual clubshaft plane and the ideal club shaft plane is greater than thepredetermined club shaft plane error tolerance (step 426). If thedifference is greater than the tolerance (step 420), then the error datais provided to the controller 355 (FIG. 18) that generates controlsignals (step 422) for controlling the magnitude and direction of forcegenerators, such as the force generators 370 a, 370 b, 370 c, and 370 ddepicted in FIGS. 4A and 4B. The error signals may be provided to thecontroller 355 via a wired interface with the processor 353 via awireless link provided by a wireless transmitter unit 309 a. The controlsignals generated by the controller 355 are used to drive the forcegenerators to create forces perpendicular to the club shaft plane (step424) to urge the muscle trainer 44 (FIGS. 4A) in the appropriatedirections for proper, conditioning of the club shaft plane muscles. Atany given point during the swing, the direction of the training force issubstantially identical to the direction of the error movement at thatpoint and the strength of the training force is proportional to themagnitude of the error signal at that point.

If guidance feedback is used, the training force is substantiallyopposite to the direction of the error movement and the strength of thetraining three is proportional to the magnitude of the error signal atthat point. If noisy feedback is used, the training, force is in arandom direction and the strength of the training force is random.

The club shaft plane dimension of control and the other three dimensionsof control are represented m FIGS. 4A and 4B by the arrows 372 a, 372 b,372 c and 372 d. The arrow 372 a represents forces generated by thetbrce generators 370 a-d parallel to the club shaft plane, the arrow 372b represents forces generated by the force generator 370 a-d in thehinge dimension, the arrow 372 c represents rotational forces generatedby force generator 370 c and 370 d about the club shaft 34, and thearrow 372 d (FIG. 4B) represents forces generated by three generators370 a-d in the arc dimension. It should also be appreciated that therecould be more than four three generators positioned on muscle trainer44.

As shown in FIG. 18, the control signals may be provided'to the forcegenerators 370 a, 370 b, 370 c, and 370 d via a wired connection withthe controller 355 or via a wireless link provided by a wirelesstransmitter unit 309 b.

It will be appreciated that the force generators 370 a, 370 b, 370 c,and 370 d depicted in FIGS. 4A and 4B represent any means for generatingforce vectors in the directions indicated by the arrows 372 a, 372 b,372 c, and 372 d. For emunple, the force generators 370 a, 370 b, 370 cand 370 d mays be thrust generating devices as described herein, such asthe motor and blade assemblies shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, or other thrustgenerating devices such as jet engines. plasma thrusters, or magneticthrusters. Thus, the invention is not limited to any particular type ofdevice for generating forces in the directions indicated by the arrows372 a, 372 b, 372 c, and 372 d.

It follows that at any given sampling interval during an actual swing,if the actual club shaft plane is located in front of the ideal clubshaft plane and the difference is greater than the shaft planetolerance, there is an in-front-of-the-plane error condition and thecorresponding error signals are generated. If the actual club shaftplane is located behind the ideal club shaft plane and the difference isgreater than the shaft plane tolerance, there is a behind-the-planeerror condition and the corresponding error signals are generated. Ineither ease, the error signals are provided to the controller 355 (FIG.18) which generates the control signals to control the, magnitude anddirection of the force generators 370 a-d on the muscle trainer 44. Atany given point in the swing, the direction of the training three issubstantially identical to the direction of the error movement at thatpoint and the magnitude of the training force generated is proportionalto the magnitude of the error signal at that point.

If guidance feedback is used, the training force is substantiallyopposite to the direction of the error movement and the strength of thetraining force is proportional to the magnitude of the error signal atthat point. If noisy feedback is used, the training force is in a randomdirection and the strength of the training force is random.

In the error augmentation and guiding methods of providing feedback, ifthe difference between the actual club shaft plane and the ideal clubshaft plane at any point in the swing is less than or equal to the shaftplane tolerance, then an in-the-ideal-shaft-plane condition is indicatedat that point and the three generators are turned off at that point(step 430 of FIG. 19).

Preferably, determination of the shaft plane tolerance is based at leastin part on inputting the level of skill of the golfer, i.e., beginner,intermediate or advanced. This allows players of any caliber to benefitfrom the use of the muscle trainer 44. In the preferred embodiment, theshaft plane tolerance is not set less than a value equal to twice thestandard error as determined by the combined accuracy of theaccelerometers and the numerical method. The standard error may bedetermined by repetitive calculation of the actual club shaft plane asthe golf club 32 with the attached muscle trainer 44 is repetitivelyswung through a highly repeatable path using a mechanical swingingdevice, such as the commercially available Iron Byron.

As discussed previously, the club face plane is a true planerepresenting the position of the club face as if the club face had zerodegrees of loft. The club face plane can be envisioned as an extensionof a zero-degree club face that'also passes through the shaft of theclub. At the address position of the club, the club face plane isideally a vertical plane that is essentially perpendicular to the clubshaft plane.

To provide proper training of the movement of the club face plane inrelationship to the club shaft plane, the full swing is divided by ahorizontal line running through the nine o'clock toe up and threeo'clock toe up positions (for the right-handed golfer). The half of theswing above the dividing horizontal line includes all segments of thebackswing, downswing, and follow-through, which occur above thehorizontal line (Intitial Hinging, Backswing Vertical, Finish Hinging,Backswing Completion, Downswing Initiation, Downswing Vertical,Downswing Middle, Re-Hinging, Follow-Through Vertical, FinishRe-Hinging, and Follow-Through Completion) and is referred to as thetwo-plane-merger zone of the swing. Motion errors within thetwo-plane-merger zone of the swing are represented by the probabilitydiagram FIG. 14. The other zone of the swing which exists below thedividing horizontal line includes all segments of the backswing,downswing, and follow-through which occur below the horizontal line(Address, Take-Away, Downswing Release, Impact, and ImpactFollow-Through) and is referred to as the two plane perpendicular zoneor impact zone of the swing. Motion errors within the two planeperpendicular zone of the swing are represented by the probabilitydiagram in FIG. 15.

As depicted in FIG. 24, the professional assists in placing the golferand the muscle trainer 350 in multiple equally spaced positionsthroughout the swing. These positions represent ideal rotationalmovement of the club face plane in relation to the club shaft plane. Thesignals from accelerometers A1, A2, A3, and A4 are read at each of thesestationary positions. Each of these positions is stored in memoryaccessible to the processor 353 and is used in calculating the idealclub face plane movement during this portion of the swing (step 588).Specifically, the processor computes and stores the rotation anglebetween the club face plane and club shaft plane at each sampleinterval. This rotation angle value (referred to herein as θ) will beninety degrees at the address position and becomes close to zero at ornear the backswing horizontal position. Enhanced accuracy of the idealclub face plane rotation determination can be obtained by increasing thenumber of stored ideal positions. This technique is described in moredetail hereinafter.

Once the backswing has entered the two plane merger zone (at or near thebackswing horizontal position), ideal rotational movement ceases and theclub face plane should remain in a relatively constant relationshipmerged with the club shaft plane until the swing approaches thedownswing horizontal position. As the downswing enters the impact zone(at or near the downswing horizontal. position), the position ofaccelerometers A3 and A4 begin a period of rapid change in which theymove away from the merged position in a direction above and below theclub shaft plane to the impact (or two plane perpendicular) position andthen back towards the club shaft plane with merger occurring again at ornear the follow-through horizontal position. Once the follow-through hasreentered the two plane merger zone (at or near the follow-throughhorizontal position), ideal rotational movement ceases and the club faceplane should remain in a relatively constant relationship merged withthe club shaft plane until the swing ends (follow-through completionposition). Once again, enhanced accuracy of the ideal club face planerotation determination can be obtained by increasing the number ofstored ideal positions.

As shown in FIG. 21, the initial positions of accelerometers A1, A2, A3,and A4 during an actual swing are determined at the beginning of theswing (step 432) with the muscle trainer in the address position. As themuscle trainer 350 is swung, the accelerometer signals from A1. A2, A3,and A4 are sampled at about one millisecond (or smaller) intervals (step434). The sampled acceleration data is provided to the numericalordinary differential equation (ODE) solver running on the processor353, which calculates the club face plane position based on thepositions of the accelerometers A1, A2, A3, and A4 measured at eachsample interval (step 436). These four position points at each sampleinterval can be used to define the club face plane during the swing. Therotational position of the actual club face plane in relation to theactual club shaft plane can then be determined at any sampling interval(step 436).

With reference to FIG. 5, the preferred viewing perspective for anObserver to visualize the rotational tolerance range and the mergertolerance range during an actual swing is to imagine a pair of eyespositioned near the end of the club shaft 34 looking toward the grip.This preferred viewing perspective for an observer will hereinafter bereferred to as the “observer's viewing, perspective.” At the addressposition, the club face plane is located between the two eyes, with thedistance from the club face plane to the right eye and the distance fromthe club face plane to the left eye being equal. As the swing begins,the eyes move with the club shaft 34 and rotate as needed to maintaintheir fixed angular relationship to the club face plane so that the clubface plane is centered between the two eyes throughout the swing. In thebackswing completion position, the pair of eyes will he upside down andlooking approximately 180 degrees away from the target. In viewing aright-handed golfer through a complete swing, rotation of the actualclub face plane outside of the tolerance range would be represented byeither rotation of the observing eyes in an under-rotated (clockwise)direction or in an over-rotated (counter-clockwise) direction.

The pair of eyes could also be positioned adjacent the grip end of clubshaft 34 looking toward the club head. This viewing perspective will,hereinafter, be referred to as the “golfer's viewing perspective.” Usingthe golfer's viewing perspective for a right handed golfer, rotation ofthe actual club face plane outside of the tolerance range would berepresented by either rotation of the observing eyes in an under-rotated(counter-clockwise) direction or in an over-rotated (clockwise)direction.

The observing eyes discussed above could he realized by placement of aminiature video camera with a viewing perspective axis (line of sight)coinciding with the club lace plane. Combined with a computer generatedrepresentation of the ideal club face plane, this video perspectivecould be very useful to both the golfer and the teaching professional.

Using the observer's viewing perspective at any given sampling intervalin the swing, if the actual club face plane is located outside of therotational tolerance range and is on the clockwise side of the tolerancerange (step 444 in FIG. 21), there is an under-rotation (or clockwiserotational) error condition and the corresponding error signals aregenerated (step 446). If the position of the actual club face plane is,located outside of the rotational tolerance range and is on thecounter-clockwise side of the tolerance range (step 444), there is anover-rotation (or counter-clockwise rotational) error condition and thecorresponding error signals are generated (step 448). In either case,the error signals are provided to the controller 355 (FIG. 18) whichgenerates the control signals to control the magnitude and direction ofthe force generators 370 c and 379 d on the muscle trainer 44. (step450). At any given point in the swing, the direction of the trainingforce is substantially identical to the direction of the error movementat that point and the magnitude of the training force generated isproportional to the magnitude of the error signal at that point.

If guidance feedback is used, the training force is substantiallyopposite to the direction of the error movement and the strength of thetraining force is proportional to the magnitude of the error signal atthat point. If noisy feedback is used, the training force is in a randomdirection and the strength of the training force is random.

In the error augmentation and. guiding methods of providing feedback, ifthe actual club face plane is located within the rotational tolerancerange (step 440), then an ideal rotation condition is indicated at thatpoint and the force generators 370 c and 370 d are turned off at thatpoint (step 452).

As shown in FIG. 22, the initial positions of accelerometers A5 and A6on the golfer's forearm are determined at the beginning of the swing(step 500) with the club head and shaft positioned at predeterminedreference positions. As the golf club 32 with>attached muscle trainer 44is swung, the accelerometer signals from A5 and A6 are sampled at aboutone millisecond intervals (step 502). The sampled acceleration data isprovided to the numerical ODE solver running on the processor 353, whichcalculates vectors representing the forearm position and orientationbased on the signals from the accelerometers A5 and A6 measured at eachsample interval (step 504). As shown in FIG. 12. the hinge angle is thendetermined to be the angle (φ) between the club shaft position vectorsand the forearm position vectors (step 506).

As shown in FIG. 24, the golf training professional assists in placingthe golfer and golf club 32 with attached muscle trainer 44 in multipleequally-spaced ideal positions throughout the swing, including positionsin the backswing, the down-swing and the follow-through. These positionsrepresent ideal hinge movement. The signals from accelerometers A1, A2,A5, and A6 are read at each of these stationary positions (steps 580,582 and 584). Data representing each of these positions are stored inmemory accessible to the processor 353 (step 586) and are used incalculating the ideal hinge angle throughout the swing (step 588). In apreferred embodiment, the processor 353 computes and stores the idealhinge angle (φ) between the club shaft position vectors and the forearmposition vectors. Enhanced accuracy of the ideal hinge angledetermination can be obtained by increasing the number of stored idealpositions.

With reference again, to FIG. 22, the actual hinge angle at any givensampling point during an actual swing is then compared to the idealhinge angle at the corresponding point (step 507). If the differencebetween the actual and ideal hinge angles is greater than apredetermined hinge angle tolerance range (step 508), then an errorcondition exists. In this case, the direction (negative or positive) andmagnitude of the error are determined (step 510). If the hinge angleerror is positive (+φ_(E)) (step 511), then an over-hinged controlsignal is generated based on the magnitude of the over-hinged error(step 512 a). If the hinge angle error is negative (−φ_(E)) (step 511),then an under-hinged control signal is generated based on the magnitudeof the under-hinged error (step 512 b). In either case, the errorsignals are provided to the controller 355 (FIG. 18) which generates thecontrol signals to control the magnitude and direction of the forcegenerators 370 a-d on the muscle trainer 44 (step 514).

At any given point in the swing, the direction of the training force ispreferably substantially identical to the direction of the errormovement at that point and the magnitude of the training force generatedis proportional to the magnitude of the error signal at that point.

If guidance feedback is used, the training force is substantiallyopposite to the direction of the error movement and the strength of thetraining force is proportional to the magnitude of the error signal atthat point. If noisy feedback is used, the training force is in a randomdirection and the strength of the training force is random.

The hinge tolerance range is determined, based on data representing thelevel of skill of the golfer who is using the training device (steps 518and 520). This tolerance range may be measured in degrees and ispreferably set at a smaller angle for professionals than for amateurs.

In the error augmentation and guiding methods of providing feedback, ifthe actual hinge angle is within the hinge angle tolerance range (step508), then an ideally-binged condition is indicated at that point andthe force generators 370 a-d are turned off at that point (step 516).

As shown in FIG. 23, the positions of accelerometers A3, A4, and A7located adjacent the golfer's xiphoid process are determined at thebeginning of the swing (step 530) with the club head and shaftpositioned at predetermined reference positions. As the golf club 32with attached muscle trainer 44 is swung, the accelerometer signals fromA3, A4, and A7 are sampled, at about one millisecond intervals (step532). The sampled acceleration data is provided to the numerical ODEsolver running on the processor 353, which calculates vectorsrepresenting the xiphoid process position and orientation based on thesignals from the accelerometer A7 measured at each sample interval (step534). As described in more detail hereinafter, the arc distance is thendetermined to be the distance between A7 and the distal end of the golfclub 32 (step 536).

As shown in FIG. 24, the golf training professional assists in placingthe golfer and golf club 32 with attached muscle trainer 44 in multipleequally spaced ideal positions throughout the swing, including positionsin the backswing, the down-swing and the follow-through. These positionsrepresent ideal are movement. The signals from accelerometers A3, A4,and A7 are read at each of these stationary positions (steps 580, 582and 584). Data representing each of these positions are stored in memoryaccessible to the processor 353 (step 586) and arc used in calculatingthe ideal arc (G) throughout the swing (step 588). In a preferredembodiment, the processor 353 computes and stores the ideal arc betweenthe club tip position vectors and the xiphoid process position vectors.Enhanced accuracy of the ideal arc determination can be obtained byincreasing the number of stored ideal positions. The club tip positionis also referred to herein as the “second position,” and the xiphoidprocess position is also referred to herein as the “seventh position.”

With reference again to FIG. 23, the actual arc at any given samplingpoint during an actual swing is then compared to the ideal arc at thecorresponding point (step 537). If the difference between the actual andideal arc is greater than a predetermined arc tolerance range (step548), then an error condition exists (step 538). In this case, thedirection (negative or positive) and magnitude of the error aredetermined (step 540). If the arc error is positive (step 541), then anover-arc control signal is generated based on the magnitude of theover-arc error (step 542 a). If the arc error is negative (step 541),then an under-arc control signal is generated based on the magnitude ofthe under-arc error (step 542 b). In either case, the error signals areprovided to the controller 355 (FIG. 18) which generates the controlsignals to control the magnitude and direction of the force generators379 a-d on the muscle trainer 44 (step 544).

At any given point in the swing, the direction of the training force ispreferably substantially identical to the direction of the errormovement at that point and the magnitude of the training force generatedis proportional to the magnitude of the error signal at that point.

If guidance feedback is used, the training force is substantiallyopposite to the direction of the error movement and the strength of thetraining force is proportional to the magnitude of the error signal atthat point. If noisy feedback is used, the training force is in a randomdirection and the strength of the training force is random.

The arc tolerance range is determined based on data representing thelevel of skill of the golfer who is using the training device (steps 548and 550). This tolerance range may be measured in centimeters and ispreferably set at a smaller distance for professionals than foramateurs.

In the error augmentation and guiding methods of providing feedback, ifthe actual arc is within the arc tolerance range (step 538), then anideal arc condition is indicated at that point, and the force generators370 a-d are turned off at that point (step 546).

As shown in FIG. 24, it will be appreciated that sensor data fordetermining the ideal club shaft plane positions, ideal rotationpositions, ideal hinge motion positions, and ideal arc positions may becollected simultaneously as the professional assists in placing thegolfer in multiple positions in the backswing (step 580), downswing(step 582) and follow-through (step 584) portions of the “ideal” swing.In a preferred embodiment, this position data is stored in memory or ona storage device (step 586) and the ideal swing motion, including idealclub shaft plane, ideal rotation motion, ideal hinge motion, and idealarc motion may be calculated (step 588) by sub-modules of acomprehensive software program. Thus, the invention is not limited toany particular sequence or timing of the collection of the ideal swingmotion data.

Calculation of Swing Error Vectors—Sensor Plane Parallel with Club FacePlane

As discussed above, the accelerometers A1, A2, A3 and A4 generatesignals indicative of position and velocity values at four positionscorresponding to the locations of the four force generators 370 a, 370b, 370 c, and 370 d. Using these accelerometer signals, positions of theclub-shaft (CS) plane and the club-face (CF) plane may be mathematicallydefined so that the angle between these two planes may be determined attime increments during a swing.

The angle between the club-shaft plane and the club-face plane variesduring the swing due to motion of a golfer's wrist and arms during aswing that causes a twisting movement of the club face. In a preferredembodiment depicted in FIG. 26, in order to capture the relative motionof the club-shaft plane and club-face plane during the swing, all fouraccelerometers A1, A2, A3 and A4 are disposed in a sensor plane thatcoincides with the club-face plane. This sensor plane can be thought ofas extending through the player's body when the club is held in theaddress position (FIG. 5). As shown in FIG. 26, when the club is held inthe address position, accelerometer A3 extends toward the player's bodyon a line perpendicular to the shaft, accelerometer A4 extends away fromthe, player's body on a line perpendicular to the shaft, andaccelerometers A1 and A2 are aligned with the club shaft.

The velocities measured by A1 and A2 can be represented as vectors thatpoint approximately parallel to the club-shaft plane throughout theswing. These three-dimensional velocity vectors are denoted as v ₁ and v₂, respectively. Each has x-y-z components that torm triplet as setforth in equation (1).

v ₁=

v_(1x), v_(1y), v_(1z)

v ₂=

v_(2x), v_(2y), v_(2z)

  (1)

The nonweighted average of these two vectors is determined as:

$\begin{matrix}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{{avg},\; {CS}} = {\frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{1} + {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{2}}{2} = {{\langle{\frac{v_{1x} + v_{2x}}{2},\frac{v_{1y} + v_{2y}}{2},\frac{v_{1z} + v_{2z}}{2}}\rangle}.}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

If a particular application required one of the velocity vectors to beweighted more than the other in the calculations, a weighted average canbe defined using two blend parameters, α₁ and α₂:

v _(avg,CS)=α₁ v ₁+α₂ v ₂=

α₁ v _(1x)+α₂ v _(2x), α₁ v _(1y)+α₂ v _(2y), α₁ v _(1z)+α₂ v _(2z)

where the blend parameters must satisfy:

α₁+α₂=1

Experimentation may reveal the best selection of blend parameters fordefining the club shaft plane and club face plane in situations wherevelocity weighting is needed.

Since the average velocity lies on the club shaft plane, the club shaftplane can be defined as the plane containing accelerometers A1 and A2and the average velocity vector v _(avg,CS). The equation of this planeis found by first taking the cross-product of the velocity vector v_(avg) and the displacement vector r _(CS) that joins accelerometers A1and A2. This cross-product yields N _(CS) which is a vectorperpendicular to the club-shaft plane. These vectors are expressed inequations (3) and (4).

r _(CS) =

x _(A2) −x _(A1) , y _(A2) −y _(A1) , z _(A2) −z _(A1)

  (3)

N _(CS) =r _(CS) ×v _(avg,CS)   (4)

As shown in FIG. 27, N _(CS) generally points down and toward the golferin the address position. As shown in FIG. 28, N _(CS) points upward andaway from the golfer at the impact position. This change of directionoccurs because the velocity vector v _(avg,CS) changes direction byapproximately 180 degrees between the backswing and downswing.

Similar calculations are done kw velocity vectors in the club face (CF)plane. As shown, in FIGS. 27 and 28, these include the vectors r _(CS)and r _(CF).The vector r _(CS) is defined by equation (3) above and isdisposed between accelerometers A1 and A2 on the club shaft. The vectoris disposed between accelerometers A3 and A4 and is approximatelyparallel to the club-face plane as defined by:

r _(CF) =

x _(A4) −x _(A3) , y _(A4) −y _(A3) , z _(A4) −z _(A3)

  (5)

It should be noted that the placement of accelerometers A1, A2, A3 andA4 require t ie vectors r _(CS) and r _(CF) to be perpendicular to eachother and that the configuration be ridgid.

A cross-product between r _(CS) and r _(CF) yields a vectorperpendicular to the club face plane. In order to determine the anglebetween the club face plane and club shaft plane to determine whether ornot they are “merged,” the normal to the club face plane should point inone direction during the backswing and in the opposite direction duringthe downswing. These two perpendicular vectors are depicted in FIGS. 27and 28, respectively, and are defined as:

N _(CF,backswing) =r _(CS) ×r _(CF)   (6a)

and

N _(CF,dowswing) =r _(CF) ×r _(CS)   (6b)

FIG. 28 depicts the ideal positioning of the club shaft plane withrespect to the club face plane at the instant the ball is struck by theclub face. At that instant, N _(CF,downswing) ideally coincides with theclub shaft plane, which means N _(CF,downswing) is perpendicular to N_(CS). This condition can be checked by calculating the angle θ betweenN _(CF,downswing) and N _(CS) which is the angle the club shaft planeand the club face plane. During the downswing as shown in FIG. 28, theangle θ is calculated as:

$\begin{matrix}{\theta = {{\cos^{- 1}\left( \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{{CF},\; {downswing}} \cdot {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}{{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{{CF},\; {downswing}}}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}} \right)}.}} & \left( {7a} \right)\end{matrix}$

During the backswing as shown in FIG. 27, the angle θis calculated as:

$\begin{matrix}{\theta = {{\cos^{- 1}\left( \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{{CF},\; {backswing}} \cdot {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}{{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{{CF},\; {backswing}}}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}} \right)}.}} & \left( {7b} \right)\end{matrix}$

The accelerometers A5 and A6 placed on the left forearm yield similardata and may be used in the same way to determine a “Left Forearm” (LF)plane. The anale between the LF plane and any of the other planes may bedetermined by and equation similar to (7a). As shown in FIG. 29, adisplacement vector r _(LF) alon the left forearm may be defined as:

r _(LF) =

x _(A6) −x _(A5) , y _(A6) −y _(A5) , z _(A6) −z _(A5)

  (8)

an average velocity of the left forearm v _(avg,LF) may be defined as:

$\quad\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{{avg},\; {LF}} = \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{6} + {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{v}}_{5}}{2}} \\{= {\langle{\frac{v_{6x} + v_{5x}}{2},\frac{v_{6y} + v_{5y}}{2},\frac{v_{6z} + v_{5z}}{2}}\rangle}}\end{matrix} & (9)\end{matrix}$

and a vector N _(LF), which is normal to the LF plane may be defined as:

N _(LF) =r _(LF) ×v _(avg,LF).   (10)

The angle between the LF plane and the club shaft plane then may bedetermined as:

$\begin{matrix}{\theta_{{LF}\; {and}\; {CS}} = {{\cos^{- 1}\left( \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{LF} \cdot {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}{{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{LF}}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{N}}_{CS}}} \right)}.}} & (11)\end{matrix}$

As shown in FIG. 29 the hinge angle ϕ between the left forearm (vector r_(LF) in equation (8)) and the club shaft (vector {dot over (r)}_(CS) inequation (3)) may also be calculated using the inverse cosine of a dotproduct:

$\begin{matrix}{\varphi = {{\cos^{- 1}\left( \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{LF} \cdot {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{CS}}{{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{LF}}{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{CS}}} \right)}.}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

Another quantity of interest in evaluating golf-swing form is the arcdistance between a point at which an accelerometer A7 is placed on thegolfer's body-centerline and a point P_(CT) disposed at or near the clubtip. As shown in FIG. 30, this distance is denoted as D_(P) _(CT)_(-A7). For an “arc distance testing” evaluation, the fouraccelerometers A1, A2, A3 and A4 are placed in a plane that isperpendicular to the club shaft as in FIG. 4B. As shown in FIG. 30, thismay achieved by rotating the accelerometers shown in FIGS. 27 and 28 by90 degrees about an axis extending between the accelerometers A3 and A4so that accelerometer A1 extends in the direction of the target (to theleft of the club from the golfer's perspective). The point P0 in FIG. 30represents a point at which the structure holding the accelerometers isattached to the club shaft. The club tip can either be defined as thebottom of the club shaft or as the tip of the club head. In theconfiguration of FIG. 30, the bottom of the club shaft has been chosenas the club tip. Based on the placement of the accelerometers, thedistance between the point P_(CT) at the club tip and the point P0 isexpressed as D_(P) _(CT) _(-P0). The vectors r _(A1,A2) and r _(A3,A4)may be obtained based on equations (3) and (5) and the x-y-z locationsof accelerometers A1, A2, A3 and A4. It should be noted that the vectorr _(A1,A2) now points in a direction perpendicular to the club shaft andis rotated 90 degrees from the vector r _(A3,A4). The unit vector{circumflex over (n)}_(A1,A2,A3,A4) which coincides withr the club-shaftis determined as the cross product between r _(A1,A2) and r _(A3,A4)divided by its length:

$\begin{matrix}{{\hat{n}}_{{A\; 1},{A\; 2},\; {A\; 3},\; {A\; 4}} = \frac{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{{A\; 3},\; {A\; 4}} \times {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{{A\; 1},\; {A\; 2}}}{{{\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{{A\; 3},\; {A\; 4}} \times {\overset{\rightharpoonup}{r}}_{{A\; 1},\; {A\; 2}}}}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

A right-hand-side notation has been used for vector cross products inthis description to ensure that the normal to the accelerometer planepoints in the direction of the club tip.

The location of the point P_(CT) can now be determined by moving a knowndistance D_(P) _(CT) _(-P0) from the point P0 in the direction of theunit vector {circumflex over (n)}_(A1,A2,A3,A4) along the club-shaft:

x _(P) _(CT) =x _(P0) +{circumflex over (n)} _(A1,A2,A3,A4) D _(P) _(CT)_(-P0)   (14)

where x=

x, y, z

Knowing the coordinates of the club-tip x _(P) _(CT) and those of thebody-centerline accelerometer x _(A7), one can determine the distancebetween those points as the not of the difference of the coordinates:

D _(P) _(CT) _(-A7) =∥x _(P) _(CT) −x _(A7)∥  (15)

This distance is also referred to herein as the arc distance,

In most cases, when the club is swung down to contact the ball, as whendriving the ball down the fairway, it is desirable that the club faceplane velocity vector be parallel to the ground at the instant the clubcontacts the ball. In some embodiments of the invention, the angles ofthe velocity vectors of accelerometers A3 and A4 are monitored to insurethat they, are perpendicular to local gravity which is assumed to be inthe vertical (z-axis) direction. If the z-axis is defined to be parallelto the earth's local gravity, the relationships

v ₃ ·{circumflex over (z)}=0 and v ₄ ·{circumflex over (z)}=0

should be satisfied when the club face impacts the ball, where{circumflex over (z)} denotes a unit vector perpendicular to the ground.In some embodiments, the processor 353 monitors these conditions andgenerates an alert for the coach and/or golfer when these conditions areviolated during a swing.

If the transition from backswing to downswing is made incorrectly, theclub head may drop or rise before the downswing starts. Such a “loop” inthe top of the swing would result in the angle between the club shaftplane and club face plane to go to about 90 degrees. This condition mayalso be monitored in some embodiments and an alert generated for thecoach or golfer.

Calculation of Swing Error Vectors—Sensor Plane Perpendicular to ClubFace Plane

In the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 4A and 31, the sensor plane definedby the locations of accelerometers A1, A2, A3 and A4 substantiallycoincides with the club shaft plane when the club head contacts theball. As in the embodiment of FIG. 26, accelerometers A1 and A2 arealigned with the club-shaft. Thus, the vectors r _(CS) and {circumflexover (N)}_(CS) are defined as discussed above. However, in thisembodiment, the accelerometers A3 and A4 are disposed on a lineperpendicular to the club-shaft which approximately coincides with theclub shaft plane. As depicted in FIG. 31, the location of accelerometerA3 is toward the target (to the left of the club from the golfer'sperspective), and accelerometer A4 is located to the right of the clubfrom the golfer's perspective. The vector r _(A3,A4) is computed asdescribed above (equation 5).

It should be noted that the placement of accelerometers A1, A2, A3, andA4 still requires the vectors r _(CS) and r _(A3,A4) to beperpendicular. In this embodiment, however, the vector r _(A3,A4) isperpendicular to the club face plane instead of being in the club faceplane. In fact, the vector r _(A3,A4) can serve as the normal to theclub face plane with the appropriate correction for the 180 degreechange in direction during the backswing and the downswing. Thus, thevectors N _(CF,backswing) and N _(CF,downswing) may be defined as:

N _(CF,backswing)=r _(A3,A4)   (16a)

N _(CF,downswing)=−r _(A3,A4).   (16b)

The remaining calculations are the same as for the embodiment of FIG.26.

Various embodiments of the invention described herein provide methodsand apparatuses for sensing, calculating and comparing, actual and idealcharacteristics of a swing of an implement, such as club shaft planecharacteristics, club face plane characteristics, rotationalcharacteristics, hinging characteristics, and arc characteristics. Itwill be appreciated that the methods and apparatuses described hereinhave application to other swing-related characteristics, such asvelocity and acceleration characteristics of a swing and coordination offoot, leg, and torso movements with the actual and ideal club positionsduring the swing.

The foregoing description of preferred embodiments for this inventionhave been presented for purposes of illustration and description. Theyare not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to theprecise form disclosed. Obvious modifications or variations are possiblein light of the above teachings. The embodiments are chosen anddescribed in an effort to provide the best illustrations of theprinciples of the invention and its practical application, and tothereby enable one of ordinary skill in the art to utilize the inventionin various embodiments and with various modifications as is suited tothe particular use contemplated. All such modifications and variationsare within the scope of the invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of providing neuromotor feedback to aperson grasping an automated reality implement that is part of anautomated reality system during performance of a useful or recreationalautomated reality function, the method comprising: (a) attaching afeedback apparatus to the automated reality implement such that theweight of the feedback apparatus is supported entirely by the automatedreality implement; (b) the feedback apparatus sensing positions of theautomated reality implement; (c) the feedback apparatus receiving one ormore signaling inputs provided by the person or the automated realitysystem; and (d) the feedback apparatus applying one or more externalforces to the automated reality implement.
 2. The method of claim 1wherein steps (b), (c), and (d) are performed substantiallysimultaneously.
 3. A method of providing neuromotor feedback to a persongrasping a video game implement that is part of a video game systemduring performance of a video game, the method comprising: (a) attachinga feedback apparatus to the video game implement such that the weight ofthe feedback apparatus is supported entirely by the video gameimplement; (b) the feedback apparatus sensing positions of the videogame implement; (c) the feedback apparatus receiving one or moresignaling inputs provided by the person or the video game system; and(d) the feedback apparatus applying one or more external forces to thevideo game implement.
 4. The method of claim 3 wherein steps (b), (c),and (d) are performed substantially simultaneously.